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Paint  Supplies,  &g. 

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Lessons  in  English, 


ADAPTED    TO    THE    STUDY    OF 


AMFRICAN   CLASSICS. 


^  S^ext^^Booii  for  f?tg!)  ^cljools  anti  aicatiemics. 


BY 


SARA    E.  HUSTED    LOCKWOOD, 

Teacher  op  English  in  the  Hillhouse  High  School, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 


-oo;o<o-o- 


BOSTON,  U.S.A.: 
PUBLISHED   BY    GINN   &   COMPANY. 

1889. 


^>l^^ 


,^'^ 

Ki 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1888,  by 

GINN  &  COMPAIST^', 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Ttpogkapht  by  J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.,  Boston. 


Pbbsswork  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 


PS/CH. 
UBRARY 


TO 


My  faithful  teachers,  my  kind  co-workers, 
my  dear  and  steadfast  friends, 

JHr.  anti  IHrs.  €.  m,  E.  (JTurttS, 

with  grateful  appreciation  of  their  unfailing  kindness, 
helpfulness,  and  sympathy. 


Think  for  a  moment  of  that  great,  silent,  j-esistless  potver  for 
good  which  might  at  this  moment  be  lifting  the  youth  of  the  country, 
were  the  hours  for  reading  in  school  expended  tqmn  the  undying, 
life-giving  hooks!  Think  of  the  substantial  growth  of  a  generous 
Americanism,  were  the  hoys  and  girls  to  he  fed  from  the  fresh  springs 
of  American  literature!  It  ivould  he  no  narroio  provincialism  into 
ivhich  they  would  emerge.  The  ivindows  in  Longfellow's  mind  look 
to  the  east,  and  the  children  tvho  have  entered  into  possession  of  his 
ivealth  travel  far.  Bryant's  fight  carries  one  through  upper  air, 
over  broad  champaigns.  The  lover  of  Emerson  has  learned  to  get 
a  far  vision.  The  coinpanion  of  Thoreau  finds  Concord  suddenly 
become  the  centre  of  a  very  wide  horizon.  Irving  has  annexed  Spaiti 
to  America.  Hawthorne  has  nationalized  the  gods  of  Greece  and  given 
an  atmosphere  to  New  England.  Whittier  has  translated  the  Hehreio 
Scriptures  into  the  American  dialect.  Lowell  gives  the  American  boy 
an  academy  ivithout  cutting  down  a  stick  of  timber  in  the  grove,  or 
disturbing  the  birds.  Holmes  supplies  that  hickory  ivhich  makes  one 
careless  of  the  crackling  of  thorns 

What  is  all  this  hut  saying  that  the  rich  inheritance  ivhich  we 
have  is  no  local  ten-acre  lot,  but  a  part  of  the  undivided  estate  of 
humanity  f 

HouACE  E.  ScuDDEK,  American  Classics  in  School. 


PREFACE. 


The  interest  recently  awakened  in  the  stndy  of  English 
is,  doul)tless,  due,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  fact  that  the 
works  of  the  best  English  and  American  authors  are  now 
published  in  convenient  and  attractive  form,  and  at  prices 
which  bring  them  within  the  reach  of  all. 

It  is  almost  universally  conceded  that  the  best  teaching 
of  English  is  that  in  which  precept  and  example  are  most 
happily  combined.  The  testimony  of  teachers  who  have 
long  been  striving  to  attain  tliis  end  is  that  far  better 
results  are  reached  by  the  use  of  supplementary  reading 
than  were  possible  before  the  days  of  cheap  editions. 
The  pupil  has  constantl}^  before  him  specimens  of  classic 
English,  and  is  trained  to  test  their  excellence  by  apply- 
ing tlie  principles  which  he  has  learned.  This  method  not 
only  sti'engthons  liis  mental  grasp  upon  the  abstract  princi- 
ples, but  unconsciously  develops  a  critical  literary  taste. 
Power  of  thought  and  facility  of  expression  are  acquired 
with  comparatively  little  effort.  More  than  this,  the  open- 
ing of  so  man}^  lines  of  thought  and  investigation  does 
much  towards  forming  the  basis  of  a  broad,  general  culture. 

These  are  not  simply  theories.  The}^  have  been  tested 
by  actual  experience.  The  question  is  not,  therefore,  Shall 
we  use  these  books  in  our  high-school  classes?  but  rather. 
How  shall  we  use  tliem  to  the  best  advantage? 

In  attempting  to  solve  this  problem,  the  necessity  for  a 
simple  but  comprehensive  text-book  has  become  apparent 
to  many  teachers.  There  are  good  text-books  on  Rhetoric 
and  excellent  works  on  Composition ;  but  most  of  them 
contain  more  than  is  needed  for  the  lower  classes  in  our 


VI  PREFACE. 

high  schools,  and  much  of  the  matter  is  too  philosophical 
for  immature  miuds.  So,  too,  there  are  voluminous  biog- 
raphies of  our  noted  writers,  but  no  one  book  that  brings 
within  the  reach  of  ever^^  pupil  the  main  facts  in  regard 
to  the  lives  anil  works  of  several  authors.  As  a  matter 
of  school  economy,  therefore,  a  new  book  on  the  study  of 
English  seems  desirable. 

The  author's  apology  for  presuming  to  meet  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  case  is  that,  for  several  years,  she  has  been  try- 
ing to  teach  English  without  a  text-book,  doing  a  laborious 
amount  of  dictation  work  and  copying  with  the  hektograph. 
Realizing  that  a  simple  and  practical  hand-book  of  the 
essentials  of  English  would  be  a  help  to  many  teachers, 
she  has  been  induced  to  publish  the  details  of  her  method. 

Mau}'  books  have  been  consulted  during  the  preparation 
of  this  volume,  but  special  r_  eution  should  be  made  of  the 
help  afforded  by  Guest's  "  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Eng- 
land" ;  "The  Handbook  of  the  English  Tongue,"  by  Augus  ; 
Swinton's  "New  Word- Analysis  "  ;  the  Rhetorics  of  D.  J. 
Hill,  A.  S.  Hill,  Hart,  and  De  Mille  ;  "  Errors  in  the  Use  of 
English,"  by  Hodgson;  "Mistakes  in  Writing  P2uglish," 
bv  Bigelow  ;  AYilsou's  "  Treatise  on  Punctuation  "  ;  and 
Whitney's   "  Language  aud  the  Study  of  Language." 

The  author  extends  her  thanks  to  the  teachers  associated 
with  her  in  the  English  department  of  the  Hillhouse  High 
School,  for  their  cordial  co-operation  ;  and  to  her  friend, 
Miss  S.   S.   Sheridan,  for  many  helpful  suggestions. 

She  also  gratefully  acknowledges  hor  obligations  to  Mr. 
S.  T.  Duttou,  Superintendent  of  the  Public  Schools  of 
New  Haven,  for  kind  encouragement  during  the  progress 
of  the  work  ;  and  to  Prof.  T.  R.  Lonnsbury  of  Yale  Uni- 
versity, for  invaluable  assistance  in  the  critical  revision  of 
tlie  manuscript.  S.  E.  H.  L. 

New  BLiVEN,  Conn.,  November,  1887. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Course  of  Study  as  pursued  iu  the  New  Haveu  High  School. 
List  of  American  Classics  for  the  Study  of  Litei-ature. 
Details  of  the  Method.  Practical  Suggestions  to  Teach- 
ers       xi 


CHAPTER   T. 
History  of  the  English  Language. 

The  Study  of  Language.     Classification  of  Languages.     The. 
Britons.      The    Roman    Invasion.      The   Saxons.      The 
Norman  Conquest.     Growth  of   the  English  Language. 
Summary  of  the  Elements  of  the  Language 1 

Questions  for  Review 34 


CHAPTER    II. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  Element. 

The  Study  of  Etymology.  Importance  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Element.  Words  Distinguished  as  Saxon  by  their  Form. 
Words  Distinguished  as  Saxon  by  their  Use  and  Mean- 
ing.    Saxon  Prefixes  and  Suffixes 4(i 

Miscellaneous  Exercises 48 


VI  PPtEFACE. 

high  schools,  and  much  of  the  matter  is  too  philosophical 
for  immature  miuds.  So,  too,  there  are  voluminous  biog- 
raphies of  our  noted  writers,  but  no  one  book  that  brings 
within  the  reach  of  every  pupil  the  main  facts  in  regard 
to  the  lives  and  works  of  several  authors.  As  a  matter 
of  school  economy,  therefore,  a  new  book  on  the  study  of 
English  seems  desirable. 

The  author's  apology  for  presuming  to  meet  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  case  is  that,  for  several  years,  she  has  been  try- 
ing to  teach  English  without  a  text-book,  doing  a  laborious 
amount  of  dictation  work  and  copying  with  the  hcktograph. 
Realizing  that  a  simple  and  practical  hand-book  of  the 
essentials  of  English  would  be  a  help  to  many  teachers, 
she  has  been  induced  to  publish  the  details  of  her  method. 

Man}'  books  have  been  consulted  during  the  preparation 
of  this  volume,  but  special  r_  ention  should  be  made  of  the 
help  afforded  by  Guest's  "  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Eng- 
land "  ;  "  The  Handbook  of  the  English  Tongue,"  by  Angus  ; 
Swinton's  "New  Word- Analysis  "  ;  the  Rhetorics  of  D.  J. 
Hill,  A.  S.  Hill,  Hart,  and  De  Mille  ;  "  Errors  in  the  Use  of 
English,"  by  Hodgson;  "Mistakes  in  Writing  P^nglish," 
bv  Bigelow  ;  Wilson's  "  Treatise  on  Punctuation  "  ;  and 
Whitney's   "Language  and  the  Study  of  Language." 

The  author  extends  her  thanks  to  the  teachers  associated 
with  her  in  the  English  department  of  the  Hillhouse  High 
School,  for  their  cordial  co-operation  ;  and  to  her  friend, 
Miss  S.   S.  Sheridan,  for  many  helpful  suggestions. 

She  also  gratefully  acknowledges  her  obligations  to  Mr. 
S.  T.  Button,  Superintendent  of  the  Public  Schools  of 
New  Haven,  for  kind  encouragement  during  the  progress 
of  the  work  ;  and  to  Prof.  T.  R.  Lonnsbury  of  Yale  Uni- 
versity, for  invaluable  assistance  in  the  critical  revision  of 
the  manuscript.  S..  E.  H.  L. 

New  Haven,  Conn.,  November,  1887. 


CONTENTS. 


IXTRODUCTIOX. 

PAGE 

Course  of  Study  as  pui'sued  in  the  Xew  Haven  High  School. 
List  of  American  Classics  for  the  Study  of  Literature. 
Details  of  the  Method.  Practical  Suggestions  to  Teach- 
ers       xi 


CHAPTER   T. 
History  of  the  English  Language. 

The  Study  of  Language.     Classification  of  Languages.     The. 
Britons.      The   Roman    Livasion.      The   Saxons.      The 
Xoriiian  Conquest.     Growth  of  the  English  Language. 
Summary  of  the  Elements  of  the  Language 1 

Questions  for  Review 34 


CHAPTER    n. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  Element. 

The  Study  of  Etymology.  Importance  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Element.  Words  Distinguished  as  Saxon  bv  their  Form. 
Words  Distinguished  as  Saxon  by  their  L'se  and  Mean- 
ing.    Saxon  Prefixes  and  Suffixes 4(i 

Miscellaneous  Exercises 48 


Vm  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   HI. 
The  Classical  Element. 

PAGE 

Latin  Prefixes  and  Suffixes.  Words  Derived  from  Latin 
Words  of  Number.  Words  Derived  from  Latin  Roots. 
Principal  Greelc  Prefixes.  Words  Derived  from  Greek 
Words  of  Number.     Words  Derived  from  Greek  Roots  .       51 

Miscellaneous  Exercises 62 


CHAPTER   IV. 

Figures  of  Speech. 

Common  Figures  Defined.     Exercises  on  Each.     Additional 

Figures  Defined.     Faulty  Figures 66 

Miscellaneous  Examples 96 


CHAPTER  V. 

Common  Errors  in  the  Use  of  English. 

Rules  and  Suggestions.     Exercises  under  Each  Rule.    Words 

often  Confused.     Errors  Illustrated 118 

Miscellaneous  Errors  to  be  Corrected 151 


CHAPTER  VL 
Diction. 

Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision.  Exercises  under  Each. 
Critical  Study  of  Words  from  the  Dictionary  and  Other 
Books  of  Reference 157 

Miscellaneous  Exercises 173 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER   VII. 
Sentences. 

PAGE 

Grammatical  and  Rhetorical  Classification.  Exercises.  Clear- 
ness, Emphasis,  Unity,  Strength,  and  Harmony.  Exer- 
cises Tinder  Each  Rule 179 

Miscellaneous  Sentences 211 

CHAPTER  YIII. 

Punctuation   and  Capitals. 

Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capitals  and  Marks  of  Punctuation. 

Exercises  under  Each  Rule 222 

Miscellaneous  Exercises 254 

CHAPTER   IX. 

Letter-Writing. 

Form  of   a  Letter.     Essential   Qualities  of  a  Good  Letter. 

Notes.     Miscellaneous  Hints.     Five-Minute  Exercises     .     257 
Subjects  for  Letters 277 

CHAPTER  X. 

Composition. 

Suggestions  for  Adapting  Composition  Work  to  the  Study  of 
liiterature.  Paraphrase.  Abstract.  Outline.  Biogra- 
phy. Amplification.  Compositions  from  Pictures.  Im- 
aginative Writings  from  Subjects.  Illustrations  and 
Lists  of  Subjects  under  Each  Division.  Five-Minute  Ex- 
ercises. Xarrative.  Description.  Xarrative  and  De- 
scription Combined.  Lists  of  Subjects.  Hints  about 
Choice  of  Subjects 279 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Biographical  Sl<etches. 


FAQE 


Topical  Biographies  of  Seven  American  Authors:  Irving, 
Longfellow,  Whittier,  Hawthorne,  Holmes,  Lowell,  and 
Bryant.  Works  of  Each  Author.  References  for  Home 
Reading.     Review  Questions  on  the  Life  and  Works  of 

Each 335 

Miscellaneous  Questions 389 

Programme  for  Celebration  of  Longfellow's  Birthday    .     .     .     392 


INTRODUCTION. 

SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

To  the  many  teachers  who  liave,  by  years  of  patient 
toil  and  experiment,  achieved  success  in  this  depart- 
ment of  school  work,  it  may  seem  presumptuous  to 
suggest  methods  of  teaching  English.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  there  are  not  a  few,  of  less  experience 
but  of  equal  enthusiasm,  who  will  welcome  a  definite 
plan  of  work  and  a  few  practical  hints.  To  such  this 
chai)ter  is  addressed. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  following  plan,  this  text- 
book is  intended  to  be  used  in  connection  with  a  crit- 
ical study  of  some  of  the  best  American  authors.  The 
choice  of  books  for  reading  must,  of  course,  depend 
largely  upon  circumstances,  upon  the  taste  of  the 
teacher,  and  the  capacity  of  the  class.^  The  plan  pro- 
vides for  instruction  extending  through  the  pupil's  first 
year  in  the  high  school  and  half  of  the  second,  although 
a  full  two  years'  course  is  strongly  recommended.  Even 
without  a  text-book,  all  the  proposed  work  except  the 
study  of  Bryant  has  been  completed  in  a  year  and  a 
half,  and  with  very  gratifying  resnlts.  It  is  believed 
that  by  the  aid  of  this  hand-book,  still  more  may  safely 
be  attempted. 

1  If  preferred,  any  other  authors  may  be  substituted  for  those  named  in 
the  plan. 


Xll 


INTRODUCTION. 


PLAN   FOR   LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

First  Year.     (40  Weeks.) 

History  of  the  English  Language. 
Saxon  and  Classical  Elements. 
Figures  of  Speech. 

Common  Errors  in  the  Use  of  English. 
Punctuation  and  Capitals. 
Letter-Writing  and  Composition. 


Irving 


Longfellow 


Whittier 


Literature. 

'-  Life. 

The  Voyage. 

Rip  Van  Winkle. 

Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 
_  Westminster  Abbey. 

Life. 

Courtshipof  Miles  Standish. 

^  Twenty  Shorter  Poems. 


]  From  "Six  Selec- 
I  tionsfromlrving's 
Sketch-Book,"  ed- 
ited by  Homer  B. 
Sprague. 

^  Riverside   Litera- 

(     ture  Series,  No.  2. 
(  Riverside    Liter a- 
(     ture  Series,  No.  11. 


r  Life. 
Snow-Bound    and    Among  ^  Riverside   Litera- 
the  Hills.  t     ture  Series,  No.  4. 


t 


Second  Year,  First  Term.     (20  Weeks.) 

Diction  :  Purity,  Propriety,  Precision. 

With  critical  study  of  words  from  the  dictionary  and  other  books 

of  reference. 
Sentences  :  Rules  for  Construction. 
Letter-Writing  and  Composition. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Xlll 


Hawthorne  .  , 


Literature. 

(  Life. 
Essay  on  Hawthorne  by  J 

T.  Fields. 
Tales  of  the  AVhite  Hills. 
Legends  of  New  England. 
Introduction  to  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse< 

lections.) 


Modern  Classics,^ 

No.  28. 


(Se- 


Holmes 


Lowell 


Bryant 


Life. 

Favorite  Poems  and 
My  Hunt  after  the  Captain. 
(Selections.) 

Life. 

The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 
Favorite    Poems.      (Selec- 
tions.) 

Life. 

Thanatopsis  and  Other  Favorite  Poems, 
lished  by  Ginn  &  Co.) 


Modern  Classics, 
No.  30. 


Modern  Classics, 
No.  5. 


(Pub- 


At  first  sight,  tlie  arrangement  of  subjects  may  seem 
illogical.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  it 
is  not  the  intention  to  have  the  class  "go  through"  the 
chapters  of  the  book  consecutively,  but  to  fit  all  the 
parts  of  the  work  into  one  harmonious  whole.  The 
plan  presupposes  that,  before  entering  the  high  school, 
the  pupil  has  learned,  the  essential  facts  concerning  the 
structure  of  the  English  language.  Some  of  the  chap- 
ters—  for  example,  "Punctuation  and  Capitals"  and 
"  Common  Errors  in  the  Use  of  English  "  —  will,  there- 
fore, not  be  new  to  him ;  but  every  teacher  appreciates 

1  Hawthorne's  Biographical  Stories,  Grandfather's  Chair,  The  Woudi.-i' 
Book,  and  Tauglewood  Tales  are  now  published  in  the  Riverside  Literature 
Series,  and  may  be  substituted,  if  preferred. 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 

the  fact  that  instruction  in  these  particulars  must  needs 
be   "line  upon  line,  and   precept  upon   precept."     In 
the  second  year  of  the  course  and  even  later,  they  may 
very  profitably  receive  attention.     It  is  recommended 
that  drill  in  these  essential  elements  of  good  writing 
and  speaking  be  given,  a  little  at  a  time,  in  connection 
with  other  and  more  entertaining  features  of  the  work. 
Let   each   principle   be    enforced    by  illustrations   and 
practical  applications.     Teach  pupils  to  punctuate   as 
they  write,  not  after  they  have  written.     In  this  way, 
the   correct   use  of  capitals  and  marks  of  punctuation 
becomes  a  matter  of  habit  rather  than  of  obedience  to 
certain   arbitrary  rules.     The    necessity  for   persistent 
attempts  to  correct  prevailing  errors  of  speech  is  too 
well  understood  by  teachers  to  need  any  comment  here. 
Practice  in  writing  should  be  constant.     If  possible, 
let  the  pupil  do  some  written  work  in  class  each  day. 
Where  there  is  a  large  number  of  pupils  under  the  care 
of  one  teacher,  daily  practice  in  writing  may  not  be  feas- 
ible ;  but  it  is  urged  that  every  teacher  make  the  most 
of  her  opportunities  in  this  direction.      The  chapters 
on  Letter-Writing  and  Composition  contain  suggestions 
for  five-minute  exercises,  to  be  introduced  at  tlie  hegiii- 
ning  of  the  recitation.     Vary  these  exercises,  so  as  to 
have  something  fresh  and  interesting  every  day.     The 
careful  teacher  will  plan  her  work  for  at  least  several 
days  in  advance,  so  as  never  to  be  at  a  loss  for  expe- 
dients to  occupy  the  time  to  the  best  advantage.    Much 
is  gained  by  occasionally  allowing  the  pupils  -to  correct 
each  other's  written  work ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  correc- 
tions   should    be    made    by    the    teacher.     When    the 
thought,  rather  than  the  arrangement,  is  to  be  consid- 


INTRODUCTION.  XV 

ered,  it  is  well  to  have  some  of  the  exercises  read  aloud 
and  criticised  by  the  class.  Pupils  should  be  encour- 
aged to  copy  their  corrected  compositions  into  a  note-- 
book,  for  future  reference.  Insist  upon  neat  and  care- 
ful writing,  even  in  these  brief  exercises. 

It  is  intended  that  the  study  of  literature  be  taken 
up  as  early  in  the  course  as  is  practicable  and  continued 
in  such  a  way  as  to  supplement  the  technical  part  of 
the  instruction.  To  illustrate  :  the  life  of  Irving  may 
be  studied  immediately  after  the  pupil  has  learned  the 
history  of  the  language.  Then,  while  he  is  learning  to 
distinguish  Saxon  words,  he  should  read  at  home  or  at 
school  as  much  as  he  can  about  Irving's  life  and  works. 
The  references  given  at  the  close  of  each  biographical 
sketch  are  intended  to  aid  in  directing  home  reading. 
The  sketches  are  purposely  meager  in  details,  contain- 
ing little  of  anecdote  and  nothing  regarding  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  authors,  the  intention  being  to  have 
the  outline  filled  out  from  the  pupils'  own  researches, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher.  The  dates  are  given 
mainly  for  reference.  Teachers  will  use  their  own  dis- 
cretion in  determining  how  many  of  these  it  is  worth 
while  for  the  scholar  to  commit  to  memory. 

After  allowing  a  reasonable  time  for  home  reading, 
let  the  pupils  tell  in  class  what  they  have  learned  in 
this  way.  If  access  to  these  references  be  impossible 
for  the  scholars,  as  will  be  the  case  in  many  schools, 
the  teacher  must  try  to  supply  the  want  of  a  circulat- 
ing library.  An  interesting  incident  in  the  life  of  the 
author  may  be  related  by  the  teacher  or  written  for  the 
class,  they  being  required  to  reproduce  it  as  their  com- 
position work  for  the  day. 


Xvi  LNTKODUCTION. 

Finally,  the  pupil  should  write  for  himself  a  biog- 
raphy of  the  author.  It  is  excellent  practice  to  change 
the  sketch  from  the  topical  form,  as  here  given,  to  the 
chronological  order  of  events.  Good  results  are  ob- 
tained by  having  parts  of  this  work  done  by  the  class 
as  a  whole,  the  teacher  writing  upon  the  blackboard  at 
the  dictation  of  various  pupils.  For  example,  let  them 
all  think  of  an  introduction  which  shall  not  begin  with, 
"  Washington  Irving  was  born  in  New  York,  April  3, 
1783."  The  class  decides  which  is  the  best  of  several 
forms  proposed,  and  the  teacher  then  writes  it,  the  class 
dictating  the  details  of  arrangement  and  punctuation. 
By  thus  doing  the  work  for  them,  while  apparently 
leaving  it  in  their  own  hands,  the  teacher  may  empha- 
size directions  previously  given  as  to  margins,  para- 
graphing, etc. 

One  of  the  simpler  sketches,  perhaps  "  The  Voyage," 
may  now  be  read  with  special  reference  to  the  principles 
already  learned.  At  the  outset,  teachers  should  seek 
to  remedy  defects  in  the  mechanical  part  of  the  read- 
ing. Doubtless  it  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  spend 
time  in  the  high  school  upon  drill  in  the  elements  of 
good  reading;  but  doubtless,  also,  the  necessity  for 
such  drill  is  recognized  in  most  high  schools.  The 
teacher  ought  to  insist  upon  such  a  style  of  reading  as 
will  show  appreciation  of  the  thought.  The  mind  must 
be  trained  to  look  ahead  and  catch  the  sense  before 
the  sound  is  uttered.  Cultivate  natural,  conversational 
tones  and  inflections.  The  entire  sketch  should  be  read 
by  the  pupil  at  home,  so  that  he  may  be  familiar  with 
it  in  its  unity  and  be  able  to  reproduce  it  either  orally 
or  in  writing,  before  beginning  to  study  it  in  detail. 


INTRODUCTION.  Xvii 

Some  of  the  points  which  should  be  considered  in  the 
critical  study  of  the  sketch  are  the  following :  — 

First.  Conslruefion.  Misunderstandincr  as  to  the  rela- 
tions  of  words  in  a  sentence  ma}^  make  the  meaning 
so  obscure  that  a  proper  reading  will  be  impossible. 
The  teacher  should  be  sure  that  such  misunderstand- 
ings are  corrected.  Occasionally  have  a  sentence  ana- 
lyzed or  ask  for  the  syntax  of  words  in  peculiar  con- 
structions. 

Second.  Derivation  mid  Definition.  Apply  the  rules 
for  distinguishing  Saxon  words.  Substitute  occa- 
sionally Saxon  words  or  phrases  for  synonymous 
terms  of  foreign  origin.  Show  the  class  hoAv  to  use 
the  dictionary,  and  see  that  the;f  form  the  liabit  of 
consulting  authorities  whenever,  in  any  of  their 
studies,  they  come  upon  a  word  whose  pronuncia- 
tion, use,  and  meaning  they  do  not  know.  Never 
accept  from  pupils  a  definition  which  does  not  accord 
with  the  office  of  the  word  defined.  Require  them 
to  define  verbs  as  verbs,  adjectives  as  adjectives,  etc. 

Third.  Allusions,  personal,  local,  historical,  literary, 
etc.  Direct  pupils  in  their  search  for  information. 
Show  them  the  use  and  value  of  the  gazetteer,  the 
encyclopsedia,  the  dictionaries  of  mythology,  biog- 
raphy, and  etymology,  the  hand-book  of  quotations, 
the  dictionary  of  phrase  and  fable.  See  that  they 
learn  to  consult  a  book  by  the  help  of  its  index. 

As  the  work  progresses,  each  new  principle  learned 
should  be  applied  to  the  work  in  literature.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  common  rhetorical  figures  is  indispensable 
to  an  intelligent  appreciatioii  of  what  is  read,  and  ac- 


k 


XVlll  INTRODUCTION. 

cordingly  the  subject  is  introduced  into  the  first  year's 
work,  in  simplified  form  and  with  copious  illustrations. 
It  is  recommended  that  Simile  and  Metaphor  be  thor- 
oughly understood  before  a  second  sketch  is  read,  and 
that  the  entire  chapter  on  Figures  be  taken  up  before 
any  poetry  is  studied  in  class. 

Before  attempting  to  study  any  sketch  or  poem,  the 
class  should  acquire  a  good  general  knowledge  of  the 
subject  of  the  piece.  For  example,  before  reading 
"  Westminster  Abbey,"  they  should  learn  the  history 
and  associations  of  the  building,  and  be  able  to  draw  a 
plan  of  it  and  to  describe  its  most  interesting  features. 
They  shoiild  have  access  to  a  guide-book  of  London, 
with  a  map  showing  the  location  of  the  Abbey.  If 
possible,  bring  within  their  reach  such  books  as  "  Old 
and  New  London,"  Dean  Stanley's  history  of  the 
Abbey,  and  Hare's  "  Walks  in  London."  Show  them 
the  illustrations  in  Knight's  "  Old  England,"  or,  better 
still,  photographs  of  all  the  places  of  interest  referred 
to  in  the  sketch.  They  will  then  be  prepared  to  walk 
with  Irving  through  the  shadowy  cloisters  and  among 
the  graves  of  the  mighty  dead  and  to  appreciate  in 
greater  measure  his  reflections  upon  the  vanity  of  human 
greatness. 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  tell  the  pupils  too 
much.  This  line  of  work  offers  peculiar  temptations  to 
the  enthusiastic  teacher,  who  is  likely  to  forget  that  the 
main  object  is  not  to  make  the  recitation  a  brilliant 
one.  Let  each  pupil  feel  that  he  must  contribute  his 
share  towards  the  general  interest. 

Require  pupils  to  commit  to  memory  and  recite  in 
class  choice  extracts  from  the   various  authors  whose 


I 


INTRODUCTION.  XIX 

works  are  studied.  Encourage  them  to  do  even  more 
of  this  memorizing  than  is  required.  The  habit  of 
storing  the  mind  with  beautiful  and  noble  thoughts, 
expressed  in  fitting  words,  cannot  be  too  highly  com- 
mended. 

For  the  second  year's  work,  it  is  expected  that  teach- 
ers will  use  substantially  the  same  methods  as  those 
suggested  for  the  beginning  of  the  course.  In  schools 
where  there  are  several  classes  in  the  same  grade  and 
but  meager  facilities  for  reference,  the  work  may  be  so 
planned  as  to  secure  rotation  of  subjects.  One  class 
may  begin  Diction  and  enjoy  a  monopoly  of  the  refer- 
ence books  required,  while  a  second  takes  up  the  chap- 
ter on  Sentences,  and  a  third  studies  the  life  and  works 
of  Hawthorne. 

These  suggestions  answer,  at  least  in  part,  the  in- 
quiries which  have,  from  time  to  time,  been  made  as  to 
the  details  of  this  method  of  studying  English.  It  is 
hoped  that  they  will  prove  of  assistance  in  the  use  of 
these  Lessons. 


1 


LESSOI^S   m  ENGLISH. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE   HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Definition  and  Derivation  of  the  Word  "Lan- 
guage."—  The  word  "language"  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  lingua,  meaning  tongue.  Its  primary  meaning  is, 
therefore,  the  expression  of  thought  by  the  use  of  the 
tongue.  But  there  are  other  ways  in  which  thought 
may  be  communicated;  for  example,  by  gestures  and 
signals,  by  pictorial  and  written  signs.  In  the  widest 
sense,  therefore,  language  signifies  not  only  utterance, 
but  all  the  ways  in  which  men  make  known  their 
thoughts.  In  the  scientific  sense,  language  means  the 
expression  of  thought  by  articulate  speech  or  by  written 
characters. 

The  Study  of  Language.  —  Although  scholarly  men 
of  all  times  have  learned  to  use  other  languages'  than 
their  own,  the  science  of  Linguistics — that  is,  the  study 
of  language  as  a  whole  —  is  of  comparatively  recent 
growth.  During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  much 
attention  has  been  paid  by  scientific  men  to  questions 
concerning  the  origin  and  history  of  language  and  the 
relations  existing  between  different  languages,  living 


is  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

and  dead.  It  is  well  for  us  to  know  what  are  some  of 
their  discoveries,  and  what  theories  they  have  about 
things  which  cannot  be  certainly  known. 

Theories   concerning'   the   Origin    of    Langiiag-e.  — 

When  we  think  of  speech  as  characteristic  of  all  men, 
from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  we  naturally  inquire. 
Why  do  all  men  speak  ?  How  did  the  first  races  who 
lived  on  the  earth  learn  to  talk  with  one  another?  No 
one  is  wise  enough  to  answer  these  questions  positively ; 
but  there  are  three  principal  theories  as  to  the  origin  of 
language.     They  are,  briefly,  as  follows  :  — 

First.    That  language  is  of  divine  origin  ;  a  direct  reve- 
lation from  God  to  man. 

Second.    That  it  is  of  human  origin ;  the  consequence 
of  man's  social  instincts  and  of  his  ingenuity. 

Third.    That  it  is  both  human  and  divine;  that  God  \i 

created  man  endowed  with  the  power  of  making 
speech  for  himself,  and  possessed  of  the  ability  to 
provide  himself  with  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  It 
assumes  that  man  has  gradually  formed  a  language 
corresponding  in  completeness  to  his  own  progress 
in  civilization,  as  he  has  gradually  improved  upon 
his  styles  of  clothing  and  shelter,  and  become  more 
fastidious  about  his  food.  The  last  theory  seems 
the  most  reasonable  and  is  the  one  most  generally 
received. 


Theories  concerning  the  Beginnings  of  Speech. — 

We  can  trace  back  many  forms  of  speech  now  in  use 
to  ruder  forms  which  existed  in  early  times,  and  so 
study  the  life  and  growth  of  a  language,  as  we  learn 


I 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  3 

the  history  of  a  man  who  has  long  been  dead,  from  the 
letters  which  he  wrote  when  living,  and  from  the  tradi- 
tions which  have  come  down  to  us  from  people  who 
knew  him.  We  cannot,  however,  determine  positively 
what  were  the  earliest  forms  of  speech.  Among  the 
theories  which  scientific  men  luive  advanced  are  three, 
which  have  been  nicknamed  "  the  bow-wow  theory," 
"the  pooh-pooh  theory,"  and  "the  ding-dong  theory." 
The  first  conjectures  that  man's  first  attempts  at  speech 
would  naturally  be  in  the  way  of  imitation  of  the  sounds 
which  he  heard,  as  a  child  often  calls  a  dog  a  "bow- 
wow," and  a  watch  a  "tick-tick."  The  second  sup- 
poses that  he  would  first  use  the  interjections,  oh!  ah! 
pooh!  etc.,  as  involuntary  expressions  of  pain  or  pleas- 
ure, surprise,  fear,  or  disgust.  The  third  theory  is 
based  upon  the  idea  that  everything  in  nature  rings 
when  it  is  struck,  and  each  substance  has  a  different 
ring.  So,  according  to  this  theory,  man  was  a  kind  of 
bell,  and  when  a  thought  struck  him,  he  rang  in  response. 
Of  course,  these  are  only  guesses.  Professor  Whitney, 
of  Yale  University,  inclines  to  accept  the  first  of  these 
theories,  which  is  properly  called  "  the  Onomatopoetic 
theory,"  from  two  Greek  words,  meaning  a  name  and 
to  make.  The  word  signifies,  therefore,  the  formation 
of  names  which  resemble  in  sound  the  things  signified. 

The  Original  Language.  —  In  the  eleventh  chapter 
of  Genesis  Ave  read,  "And  the  w^hole  earth  was  of  one 
language  and  of  one  speech."  It  used  to  be  taken  for 
granted  that  this  original  language  was  the  Hebrew, 
in  which  the  Old  Testament  was  written ;  but  when 
scholars    attempted  to   classify   the   languages    of   the 


4  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH. 

world,  they  found  many  things  to  puzzle  them.  As- 
suming that  Hebrew  was  the  mother  of  all  other  lan- 
guages, they  expected  to  be  able  to  trace  any  common 
word  in  the  different  languages  back  to  its  Hebrew 
root ;  but  in  this  they  were  disappointed.  After  years 
of  study  and  labor,  it  was  discovered  that  they  had  been 
all  the  time  working  upon  an  incorrect  supposition. 
Their  experience  was  much  like  that  of  the  early  astron- 
omers, who  thought  that  the  earth  was  the  centre  around 
which  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  planets  revolved ;  and 
who  tried  in  vain  to  reconcile  their  observations  with 
their  calculations  concerning  the  movements  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  When  it  was  demonstrated  that  the 
sun  was  the  centre,  the  whole  science  of  astronomy  was 
changed.  So,  when  the  students  of  Linguistics  learned 
that  the  Hebrew  was  not  the  original  language,  they 
had  to  do  their  work  of  classification  all  over  again. 

The  Study  of  Sanskrit.  —  The  discovery  of  their 
mistake  was  made  in  a  singular  way.  About  one  hun- 
dred years  ago,  the  English,  who  governed  India,  found 
that,  in  order  to  understand  the  old  laws  by  which  the 
people  had  been  ruled,  it  was  necessary  to  study  the 
language  in  which  these  laws  were  written.  This  was 
the  Sanskrit,  the  ancient  sacred  dialect  of  India.  It 
ceased  to  be  spoken  more  than  three  centuries  before 
Christ,  but  specimens  had  been  preserved  in  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Hindus.  The  English  missionaries,  too, 
found  that  they  must  study  the  Sanskrit,  in  order  to 
understand  the  religious  traditions  of  the  people  and 
convince  them  of  their  errors.  As  the  work  progressed, 
it  was  noticed  how  similar  this  ancient  dialect  was,  in 
many  important  particulars,  to  the  Latin  and  Greek, 


HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  5 

and  to  the  modern  languages  of  Europe,  and  how  un- 
like it  was  to  the  Hebrew.  Many  of  the  problems 
which  had  long  been  puzzling  learned  men  were  easily 
solved  by  the  help  of  students  of  the  Sanskrit,  and 
many  obscure  points  of  relationship  became  clear  in 
the  light  of  the  discoveries  which  were  made.  A  new 
classification  of  languages  was  the  result.  By  this  classi- 
fication the  Sanskrit  is  not  made  the  original  language, 
but  is  regarded  as  the  oldest  member  of  one  family  of 
languages,  while  the  Hebrew  holds  an  important  place 
in  another  family. 

Families  of  Langiiagres.  —  In  studying  the  relations 
existing  between  languages,  scholars  have  been  guided 
by  resemblances  in  roots  and  words  and  forms  of  inflec- 
tion and  construction,  just  as  we  recognize  children 
as  belonging  to  the  same  family,  because  of  similarity 
in  form,  features,  and  expression,  or  in  traits  of  charac- 
ter. The  science  of  Linguistics  is  still  so  young  that 
^ly  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  the  work  of  deter- 
mining the  relations  between  the  languages  of  the 
world:  but  thus  far  the  existence  of  two  distinct  fami- 
lies has  been  established.  The  first  is  known  by  three 
different  names :  — 

1.  The  Indo-European,  because  it  includes  the  languages 

of  India  and  of  Europe. 

2.  The  Japhetic,  because  the  races  represented  are  sup- 

posed to  be  descended  from  this  son  of  Noah. 

3.  The  Aryan,  because  the  original  home  of  this  family 

is  supposed  to  have  been  the  plateau  of  Iran  or 
Ariana,  called  Arya  in  the  Sanskrit. 


6  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

The  second  is  known  by  two  names:  — 

1.  The  Semitic  or  Shemitic,  because  the  races  repre- 

sented are  supposed  to  be  descended  from  Shem. 

2.  The  Syro-Arabian,  from  the  Syriac  and  Arabic,  two 

of  its  languages. 

These  families  by  no  means  include  all  of  the  three 
or  four  thousand  dialects  spoken  in  the  world,  but 
there  is  so  much  uncertainty  about  the  relationships  of 
the  others  that  we  will  not  attempt  to  combine  them 
into  families.  The  Indo-European,  being  the  family  of 
most  importance,  deserves  careful  study ;  and  its  classi- 
fication is  especially  interesting  to  us,  since  it  shows 
us  the  place  which  our  mother-tongue  holds  among  the 
languages  of  Europe  and  Asia.       .  ^ 

CLASSIFICATIOX   OF   THE   INDO-EUROPEAN  FAMILY. 
Showing  the  Relations  of  the  Most  Important  Languages. 


I.   The  Indian  Branch. 

I 

Sanskrit. 

Earliest  form  found  in  the 

Veilas,  the  most  ancient  of 

the  sacred  books  of  the 

Hindus. 

Prakrit. 
One  of  the  Prakrit  dialects 
is  the  Pali,  the  sacred  lan- 
guage of  the  Buddhists  in 
Ceylon  and  Farther  India. 

Modern  Dialects  of  India. 


II.   The  Persian  Branch. 


Zend. 
Earliest  form  found 
in  the  Zend-Avesta, 

the  oldest  sacred 
book  of  the  Persians. 


Old  Persian. 
Found  in  the 

cuneiform 

(arrow-headed) 

inscriptions  of 

Darius  and  Xerxes 

I 
Modern  Persian. 


I       r       I 

Hindi.    Bengali.    Mahratti. 


I 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 


♦ 


III.  The  Greek  Branch.  IV.   The  Italic  Branch. 

Ancient  Greek.  Latin. 

I  The  language  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

Modern  Greek,  or  Romaic.  | 

Principal  Romance  Languages. 


I \ ^  I 

French.     Italian.     Spanish.     Portuguese. 


V.    The  Celtic  Branch. 


Dialects  of  early  inhabitants  of  Spain,  Gaul  (France), 
Britain  (England  and  Scotland),  and  Ireland. 

' ^ o^,- 

Cymric.  Gaelic. 


Welsh.     Cornish.    Armorican.  Irish.      Manx.       Highland 
Spoken  in  Spoken        Scotch. 

Brittany,  in  the  Isle 

France.  Man. 


VI.    The  Sclavonic  Branch. 


Old  Sclavonic.  Old  Prussian.  Russian.  Bulgarian.  Polish.  Bohemian 
Found  in  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible, 
one  thousand 
years  old. 

VII.    The  Teutonic  Branch. 


Gothic.  High  Scandinavian.       Low  Germanic. 

Found  in  a  Germanic.  I 

translation  of  |  j            |           j             | 

the  Bible,  fif-  Old  High  jce-    Dan-  Swed-    Nor- 

teen  hundred  German,  landic.  ish.      ish.     wegian. 
years  old. 


Middle  High  Dutch.  Low  German  Anglo-Saxon, 

^^^j^'^"-  (Plattdeutsch).    or  English. 

New  High  German, 


8  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

The  Semitic  Family  includes  the  Phoenician,  Chal- 
dean, Assyrian,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Hebrew.  This 
family  is  of  interest  to  us  because  the  nations  which  it 
represents  once  played  an  important  part  in  the  world's 
history.  In  ancient  times  Assyria  and  Chaldea,  with 
their  great  cities  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  were  the 
richest  and  most  powerful  kingdoms  in  Asia.  Phoeni- 
cia, though  a  mere  strip  of  sea-coast  at  the  eastern  end 
of  the  Mediterranean,  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce 
from  its  ports.  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  from  the  numerous 
colonies  which  it  planted  along  the  shore  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  The  most  important  of  these  colonies  was 
Carthage,  the  rival  of  Rome.  The  Phoenicians  did 
much  to  extend  the  limits  of  geographical  knowledge ; 
and  most  of  the  alphabets  now  in  use  were  derived  from 
theirs.  Syria  was  prominent  mainly  because  of  the 
extensive  trade  which  Damascus  and  Palmyra  carried 
on  with  the  East,  by  means  of  caravans  across  the 
desert.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Arabs  under  Moham- 
med overcame  the  neighboring  nations  and  gradually 
brought  under  their  dominion  a  large  part  of  Asia,  the 
explored  regions  of  Africa,  and  the  countries  of  South- 
ern Europe,  forming  the  most  powerful  Semitic  king- 
dom that  has  ever  existed.  The  Hebrew  is  the  most 
important  representative  of  this  family,  because  of  its 
association  with  the  Holy  Land,  with  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures,  and  with  the  Christian  religion,  "the 
mightiest  element  in  human  history." 

Peculiarities  of  Semitic  Inflection.  —  Both  the  Indo- 
European  and  the  Semitic  languages  are  "  inflectional  "; 
that  is,  the  variations  of  an  idea  are  expressed  by  certain 
changes  in  the  form  of  the  root^  the  simplest  element 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  9 

which  expresses  that  idea.  To  inflect  means  to  bend  ; 
so  when  we  inflect  a  verb,  we  really  heml  the  form  of 
expression  to  make  it  flt  the  various  circumstances  of 
time,  person,  and  number,  etc.  For  example,  see  is  the 
root,  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb ;  seeing,  saw,  and 
seen,  are  inflected  forms  of  the  same  verb.  We  are  all 
familiar  with  the  forms  of  inflection  peculiar  to  the 
English  language,  and  perhaps,  to  some  extent,  with  the 
inflections  of  the  Latin,  the  German,  and  the  French. 
In  the  languages  of  the  Semitic  family  the  mode  of 
inflection  is  altogether  different.  In  most  of  the  verbs 
the  root  is  made  up  of  three  consonants,  and  the  inflec- 
tion consists  in  combining  with  thein  different  vowels. 
Professor  Whitney  gives  a  very  good  illustration,  which, 
although  we  need  not  try  to  learn  it,  will  help  us  to 
understand  the  peculiarities  of  the  Semitic  languages. 
He  selects  the  Arabic  root  q-t-l,  which  has  the  idea  of 
killing.  The  following  are  some  of  the  variations  of  this 
elementary  idea :  — 


qatala  =  he  killed. 

qatil 

=  killing. 

qattala  =  he  massacred. 

iqtal 

=  causing  to  kill. 

qatalat  —  she  killed. 

aqtala 

=  he  caused  to  kill 

qutila   =  he  was  killed. 

qutl 

=  murderous. 

qut'du  =  they  were  killed. 

qatl 

=  murder. 

uqtul    =  kill. 

qitl 

=  enemy. 

Origin  of  the  Indo-European  Family.  — In  order  to 
understand  more  clearly  the  resemblance  between  the 
languages  of  Europe  and  those  of  India  and  Persia,  let 
us  notice  a  single  illustration.  The  word  father  has 
these  forms  in  the  difl'erent  languages  :  — • 


Latin, 

paler. 

Greek, 

(pronounced  pd-tair 

') 

Gothic, 

valar. 

German, 

voter. 

Dutch, 

fader. 

Danish, 

fader. 

Swedish, 

fader. 

English, 

fhther. 

10  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

Sanskrit,  pitri. 

Zend,  paitar. 

Persian ,  pader. 

Erse,  athair. 

Italian,  padre. 

Spanish,  padre. 

French,  pere. 

Saxon ,       f aider. 

This  is  but  one  example  of  many.  The  pronouns 
and  the  numerals  show  the  same  striking  simila-rity. 
One  writer  says,  "The  terms  for  God,  house,  father 
and  mother,  son  and  daughter,  heart  and  tears,  axe  and 
tree,  dog  and  cow,  identical  in  all  Indo-European  lan- 
guages, may  be  compared  to  watchwords  of  a  great 
army  on  its  solemn  march  around  the  globe."  The  only 
way  of  accounting  for  such  resemblances  as  these,  is  by 
supposing  that  all  the  members  of  this  family  had  a 
common  ancestor  in  some  forgotten  tongue,  wdnch 
ceased  to  be  spoken  long  before  history  began  to  be 
written.  It  is  supposed,  too,  that  these  races  speaking 
the" same  tongue  must  once  have  lived  together.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  the  home  of  Japhet  was  in  the  central 
part  of  Asia,  in  the  Plateau  of  Iran  or  Persia,  called 
Arya  in  the  Sanskrit.  We  must  remember  that  this 
is  only  tradition.  "We  have  no  evidence- that  Arya  was 
really  the  home  of  Japhet ;  but,  according  to  the  theory, 
here  his  descendants  lived  until  they  became  so  numer- 
ous that  they  were  obliged  to  seek  new  homes  for  them- 
selves. Possibly  the  first  ones  who  started  out  went  to 
the  eastward  until  they  were  stopped  by  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  It  is  the  westward-bound  pioneers,  how- 
ever, with  whom  we  have  to  do. 


HISTORY   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  11 

The  Celts.  —  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  first 
band  of  people  who  travelled  westward  were  the  Celts 
or  Kelts,  since  m  early  times  they  occupied  the.countries 
along  the  sea-coast  —  Spain,  Gaul  (France),  and  part  of 
Italy  —  and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Their  position  here  would  seem  to  indicate  that  they 
had  been  pushed  on  by  other  bands  until  they  could  go 
no  farther.  But  this,  too,  is  only  a  theory.  With  the 
story  of  these  early  inhabitants  properly  begins  the  his- 
tory of  England,  though,  as  we  shall  see,  the  Celts  were 
not  the  ancestors  of  the  English  people. 

The  Britons.  —  About  fifty-five  years  before  Christ, 
when  Julius  Csesar  was  conquering  the  Celtic  tribes  in 
Spain  and  Gaul,  the  attention  of  the  Romans  was 
attracted  to  an  unknown  land  whose  shores  were 
dimly  seen  from  the  northern  coast  of  Gaul.  The 
Romans  were  fond  of  geography  and  of  exploring  un- 
known regions,  and  their  generals  had  a  passion  for 
extending  the  Roman  dominions.  Csesar  determined 
to  explore  the  country  on  the  other  side  of  the  Chan- 
nel; and  it  is  to  the  records  of  these  explorations  by 
the  Romans  that  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  the  early 
inhabitants  of  England.  It  was  not  then  known  as 
England.  The  Romans  named  it  Britannia,  and  its 
inhabitants  were  called  Britons.  We  must  remember 
that  they  were  Celtic  people,  like  the  inhabitants  of 
Gaul.  Caesar's  own  account  of  his  expedition  has  been 
preserved.  From  it  we  gain  a  very  clear  idea  of  his 
experiences  in  this  hitherto  unknown  country.  He 
tells  us  that  the  Britons  were  brave,  fierce,  and  warlike. 
Strabo,  a  Roman  geographer,  says  that  their  houses 
were  made  of  a  conical  framework  of  poles,  with  long 


12  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

willow  branches  twisted  in  and  out.  There  were  no 
windows  nor  chimneys.  Another  writer  compares  these 
dwellings  to  "huge  bee-hives."  The  chiefs  lived  in 
huts  which  were  regarded  as  extremely  elegant,  because 
the  branches  of  which  they  were  woven  had  been 
stripped  of  their  bark.  The  more  civilized  people,  who 
lived  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country,  cultivated 
the  land  to  some  extent;  but  the  inland  tribes  of  the 
North  had  no  knowledge  of  agriculture.  They  lived  by 
raising  flocks  and  herds,  and  by  hunting  wild  animals. 
They  wore  coats  of  skins,  and  painted  their  bodies 
blue  with  the  juice  of  a  plant.  Ca3sar  tells  us  that 
they  looked  "dreadful"  in  battle.  These  people  were 
pagans.  Their  priests  were  called  Druids,  and  their 
religion  is  often  spoken  of  as  Druidism.  Csesar  says 
that  they  offered  human  sacrifices  to  their  gods,  making 
"  huge  images  of  osier-twigs,"  into  which  they  put  their 
living  victims  and  then  set  fire  to  the  cages.  The 
Druids  were  not  only  the  priests,  but  the  judges  of  the 
people  and  the  teachers  of  the  children.  At  Carnacln 
France  and  at  Stonehenge  in  England  are  works  which 
have  been  ascribed  to  the  Druids.  They  consist  of  large 
stones  set  up  as  if  for  monuments,  or  rude  pillars  for 
altars  and  temples.  At  Carnac  the  stones  are  placed 
in  long  avenues,  but  at  Stonehenge  they  were  origi- 
nally arranged  in  circles.  No  one  knows  what  pur- 
pose they  served,  or  whether  the  Druids  really  erected 
them. 

The  Romans  in  Eng-land.  —  Julius  Csesar  did  not 
succeed  in  conquering  the  warlike  Britons,  although 
for  nearly  five  centuries  after  his  invasion  the  Romans 
regarded  Britannia  as  one  of  their  provinces.      They 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  13 

sent  several  expeditions  to  explore  the  country,  but  did 
not  discover  that  it  was  an  island  until  more  than  one 
hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Csesar.  Agricola,  who 
was  then  the  ruler  of  the  province,  drove  the  fierce 
tribes  of  the  North  back  to  their  native  mountains,  and 
built  a  wall  across  the  island  to  prevent  them  from 
coming  into  the  southern  part  of  the  country,  where  he 
had  established  the  Roman  dominion.  The  Romans 
held  Britain  in  military  subjection,  keeping  some  of 
their  legions  there  to  overawe  the  people,  just  as  for 
many  years  the  English  have  maintained  an  army  in 
India.  Meanwhile  the  Romans  were  doing  much  to 
improve  the  country.  They  made  roads,  established 
trading-places,  drained  marshes,  and  taught  the  people 
to  build  houses  and  temples  and  baths  in  the  Roman 
fashion.  When  Italy  was  invaded  by  barbarians  from 
the  North,  the  Romans,  finding  that  their  capital  was 
in  danger,  hastily  withdrew  their  army  from  Britain 
(426  A.D.). 

Effect  of  the  Roman  Occupatiou  upon  tlie  Lan- 
guag-e.  —  Besides  the  soldiers  and  those  directly  inter- 
ested in  the  government  of  the  province,  so  few  Romans 
came  to  live  in  Britain  that  there  was  almost  no  inter- 
mingling of  the  races.  For  this  reason,  the  language  of 
the  country  was  but  little  changed.  It  has  been  said 
that  not  more  than  a  dozen  Latin  words  were  left  by 
the  Romans,  and  many  of  these  were  greatly  changed 
in  form.  For  example,  the  proper  name  Chester,  with 
its  compounds  such  as  Dorchester,  Manchester,  and 
Winchester,  is  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  castra,  a  forti- 
fied camp.  So  also  are  Worcester  and  Lancaster.  It 
was  in  these  camps  that  tlie  Romans  established  muj' 


14  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

kets  to  which  the  Britons  brought  whatever  they  had 
to  sell.  In  the  course  of  time  the  camps  became  towns, 
which  still  bear  the  old  names.  Not  more  than  one 
hundred  Latin  words  have  been  added  to  our  language 
by  the  five  centuries  of  Roman  rule.  Most  of  them  are 
proper  names,  nearly  all  ending  in  port,  caster,  cester, 
and  Chester.  The  word  street  is  derived  from  stratia  via, 
"paved  way,"  the  name  applied  to  the  Roman  roads. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  English  language  contains  at 
least  thirty  thousand  w^ords  of  Latin  origin ;  but  they 
were  not  introduced  into  England  by  the  Romans. 

The  Teutons.  —  A  second  great  band  of  people  who 
made  their  home  in  Europe  were  the  Teutons  or  Ger- 
mans. They  settled  north  of  the  Danube  River  and 
east  of  the  Rhine ;  also  in  Denmark  and  the  adjoining 
countries.  Here  they  became  separated  into  various 
tribes,  those  of  the  greatest  historical  importance  being 
the  Goths,  the  Vandals,  the  Franks,  the  Angles,  and 
the  Saxons.  A  Roman  historian,  Tacitus,  the  son-in- 
law  of  Agricola,  gives  us  a  long  account  of  these  people. 
He  describes  them  as  having  "  eyes  stern  and  blue, 
j'-ellow  hair,  and  huge  bodies."  They  did  not  live  in 
cities,  but  each  family  occupied  a  little  village  of  its 
own;  and  so  in  time  the  families  grew  into  tribes,  and 
the  tribes  into  kingdoms.  In  civilization  they  were  but 
little  in  advance  of  what  the  Britons  had  been  in  the 
days  of  Csesar.  They  spent  much  of  their  time  in  fierce 
quarrels  among  themselves,  or  in  battle  with  the  neigh- 
boring tribes.  In  peace  the}''  were  indolent  and  fond 
of  carousing.  They  invaded  the  neighboring  provinces, 
and  killed  or  drove  away  the  inhabitants,  and  set  up 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  15 

kingdoms  of  their  own.  The  Franks  settled  in  Gaul, 
and  from  them  the  name  France  is  derived.  The  Goths 
set  up  a  kingdom  in  Spain  and  one  in  Italy.  It  was 
when  the  Goths  and  the  Vandals  invaded  the  Roman 
provinces  that  the  Romans  had  to  withdraw  their 
legions  from  Britain  to  defend  their  capital.  They 
meant  to  return,  but  they  never  did ;  for  the  Roman 
Empire  was  destroyed  by  these  barbarians.  Three  of 
these  Teutonic  tribes,  the  Jutes,  the  Angles,  and  the 
Saxons,  lived  on  the  sea-coast  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Elbe.  They  were  bold  pirates,  who  made  incursions  by 
water  upon  the  neighboring  countries,  often  ravaging 
the  coasts  of  Britain.  The  Britons  called  them  "sea- 
wolves,"  and  doubtless  they  richly  deserved  the  name. 

The  Angles  and  Saxons  in  England.  —  After  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Roman  forces  from  Britain,  the  Picts 
and  Scots,  the  wild  tribes  who  inhabited  the  northern 
part  of  the  island,  left  their  mountain  homes  and  rav- 
aged the  lands  of  their  Celtic  brethren  at  the  South. 
The  Britons  were  not  as  valiant  as  their  ancestors  had 
been ;  and,  despairing  of  success  in  their  attempts  to 
repel  the  invaders,  they  sent  a  piteous  appeal  to  their 
Roman  masters  to  come  back  and  help  them  conquer 
their  enemies.  The  Romans,  however,  were  too  busy 
with  their  own  troubles  to  attend  to  the  woes  of  the 
Britons.  Then  Vortigern,  a  British  king,  decided  to 
hire  his  troublesome  neighbors,  the  Angles  and  the 
Saxons,  to  aid  him  in  this  time  of  need,  promising  to 
give  them  money  and  land  in  return  for  their  services. 
They  accepted  his  oifer,  and  helped  to  drive  back  the 
Picts  and  Scots  ;  but  soon  complained  that  he  did  not 
pay  them  well  enough,  and  threatened  to  plunder  the 


16  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

whole  island  unless  be  sliowed  more  liberality.  When 
it  was  too  late,  the  Britons  repented  of  having  asked 
help  from  these  "  sea-wolves  " ;  for  the  German  tribes 
made  preparations  to  come  over  in  great  numbers  and 
take  the  land  if  the  Britons  would  not  give  it  to  them. 
It  was  about  twenty-five  years  after  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Romans  that  these  Teutonic  invaders  came  into 
Britain,  led  by  two  chiefs,  Hengist  and  Horsa.  The 
Britons  met  them  at  Aylesford,  Kent,  and  a  great 
battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  invaders  were  victo- 
rious. The  inhabitants  were  either  slaughtered,  en- 
slaved, or  driven  far  to  the  westward,  and  the  German 
tribes  were  left  in  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
island.  The  exiled  Britons  fled  to  the  mountains  of 
Wales  and  Cornwall,  to  the  islands  adjoining  Britain, 
And  to  a  province  in  France,  which  is  still  known  as 
Brittany.  Meanwhile  the  Jutes,  the  Angles,  and  the 
Saxons  continued  to  come  over  to  Britain,  where  they 
formed  kingdoms  of  their  own.  We  can  understand 
now  what  all  this  has  to  do  with  the  history  of  our  lan- 
guage ;  for  England  is  a  contraction  of  Engla-land,,  and 
means  "  the  land  of  the  Angles  "  (or  Engles),  and  these 
German  tribes  united  to  form  the  Engle-ish  (^Englisc) 
or  English  people. 

Effect  of  the  Saxon  Conquest  upon  the  Language. 
—  In  order  to  understand  the  great  change  which  the 
coming  of  the  Saxons  made  in  the  language  of  England, 
let  us  recall  what  happened  when  America  was  colonized 
by  the  nations  of  Europe.  They  drove  the  Indians 
farther  and  farther  west,  exterminating  whole  tribes  of 
them.  This  is  very  much  like  the  way  in  which  tlie 
Saxons  treated  the  Britons,  in  the  fifth  century.    In  the 


HISTORY   OF    THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  17 

United  States,  the  result  was  that  the  people  who  con- 
quered the  country  adopted  but  few  of  the  Indian  words. 
Some  of  them  are  tobacco,  potato,  moccasin,  hommij,  mush, 
ivujivam,  and  tomahawJc.  At  first  the  settlers  retained 
the  language  of  the  country  from  which  they  came ; 
but  in  time,  as  the  relations  between  the  colonies  became 
closer,  the  English,  Avhich  was  spoken  in  the  most  influ- 
ential colonies,  became  the  language  of  the  whole  coun- 
try. In  much  the  same  way,  the  Celtic  language  was 
exterminated,  so  that  only  a  few  of  our  common  words 
can  be  traced  to  the  speech  of  the  ancient  Britons. 
Bard,  fflen,  p>ool,  boast,  and  cradle  are  among  the  words 
which  are  supposed  to  be  of  Celtic  origin.  So,  too,  as 
the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes  mingled  more  and  more, 
great  changes  became  apparent  in  their  form  of  speech, 
and  in  time  the  dialect  of  the  West  Saxons  became  the 
language  of  literature  and  of  law.  This  is  what  is 
known  as  Old  Unglish.  Thus  it  happens  that  the 
language  of  the  Teutonic  invaders  is  called  sometimes 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  sometimes  the  Saxon,  and  sometimes  the 
English.  Still  another  point  of  resemblance  between 
the  fate  of  the  Britons  and  that  of  the  Indians  may 
be  noted.  The  remnant  of  the  latter  have  been  driven 
to  the  far  West,  where  they  retain,  to  some  extent, 
their  old  habits  of  living  and  of  speech.  In  the  same 
way,  the  descendants  of  the  Celtic  exiles  retained,  in 
Wales  and  in  Brittany,  the  customs  and  the  language 
of  their  ancestors. 

Specimens  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  —  Compare  these 
two  versions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  with  our  modern 
version :  — 


18 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


Anglo-Saxon. 
Faeder  I'lre,  ^\>u  |)e  eart  on  heo- 
fenum,  si  j>in  nama  gehalgod.  To 
be-cume  j>in  rice.  Geweor'Se  Hn 
willa  on  eor'San^  swvl  swa  on  heo- 
fenum,  Urne  daeghwamlican  hhif 
syle  lis  to  da?g.  And  forgyf  iis  ure 
gyltas,  swa  swa  we  forgyf  a'S  iirum 
gyltendum.  And  ne  gelsed  Ki  us 
on  costnunge,  ac  alys  us  of  ytle. 
S6«lice. 


Old  Englisb. 
Wycliffe,  1380. 

Oure  fadir  that  art  in  hevenes 
Halowid  be  thi  name,  Thi  kyng- 
dom  come  to.  Be  thy  wille  don  in 
erthe,  as  in  lievene. 

Gyve  to  us  this  dai  oure  breed 
over  otliir  substaunce.  And  for- 
gyve  to  us  oure  dettis  as  we  for- 
gyven  to  oure  dettouris,  and  lede 
us  not  into  temptacioun.  But  de- 
lyvere  us  from  yvel.     Amen. 


We  should  find  it  difficult  to  read  the  first  of  these, 
though  we  can  guess  what  most  of  the  words  mean.  It 
is  interesting  to  notice  how  the  Saxon  tongue  gradually 
changed  in  form,  and  how  our  modern  English  has  im- 
proved upon  the  style  of  the  first  English  translation  of 
the  Bible. 

Among  the  poems  translated  by  Longfellow  is  one 
from  the  early  English.  It  is  called  "  The  Grave,"  and 
was  written  about  the  year  1200.  Compare  the  first 
stanza  of  the  translation  with  the  original:  — 


De  wes  bold  gebyld 
er  ))U  iboi'en  were 
'5e  wes  mold  iniyiit 
er  ^u  of  moder  come 
ac  hit  nes  no  idiht 
ne  l^eo  deopnes  imeten  : 
nes  gyt  iloced 
hu  long  hit  J^e  were : 
Nu  me  \>e  bringreS 
l^er  ^u  beon  scealt 
nu  me  sceal  i>e  meten 
and  "Sa  mold  seo-55a. 


For  thee  was  a  house  built 
Ere  thou  wert  born, 
For  thee  was  a  mould  meant 
Ere  thou  of  mother  camest. 
But  it  is  not  made  ready, 
Nor  its  depth  measured, 
Nor  is  it  seen 
How  long  it  shall  be. 
Now  I  brimj  thee 
Where  thou  shalt  be ; 
Now  I  shall  measure  thee. 
And  the  mould  afterwards. 


i>  =  th. 


^■S  =  clL 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  19 

Christianity  in  England.  —  It  is  not  known  just  how 
Christianity  was  first  introduced  into  Britain ;  but  one 
of  the  tlieories  is  that  some  of  the  Roman  soldiers  who 
had  been  led  by  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter  or  St.  Paul  to 
give  up  the  worship  of  pagan  gods,  taught  the  new  faith 
to  some  of  the  Britons  with  wliom  they  came  in  con- 
tact. There  are  traditions,  too,  that  missionaries  from 
Gaul  crossed  over  to  Britain  before  the  time  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Conquest.  After  the  Celts  had  been  driven 
into  Wales  and  Cornwall,  the  Christian  religion  con- 
tinued to  spread  among  them.  The  English  invaders, 
however,  brought  with  them  from  their  old  home  on  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Baltic  the  worship  of  the  sun 
and  moon ;  of  Tiw,  the  god  of  heaven ;  of  Woden  (or 
Odin),  the  god  of  war  ;  of  Thor  (or  Thunder),  the  god 
of  storms  ;  of  Frea  (or  Friga),  the  goddess  of  peace  and 
plenty  ;  and  of  Seterne,  of  whom  little  is  known  except 
the  name.  Our  names  for  the  days  of  the  week  were 
first  given  in  honor  of  these  gods  and  goddesses.  More 
than  a  century  after  the  settlement  of  the  Saxons  in 
England,  they  were  converted  to  Christianity  by  Roman 
missionaries,  chief  among  whom  was  Augusthie.  The 
story  of  their  conversion  is  told  by  the  Venerable  Bede, 
an  Anoflo-Saxon  monk  who  was  born  about  seventy-five 
years  after  Augustine  went  to  England,  and  who  wrote 
the  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church.  He  relates 
that  Gregory,  who  afterwards  became  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great,  passing  through  the  market-place  of  Rome, 
noticed  among  the  slaves  exposed  for  sale  some  remark- 
ably handsome  boys.  When  he  was  told  to  what  nation 
they  belonged,  he  said,  "With  those  fair  faces,  they 
should  be,  not  Angles,  but  Angels."    The  historian  goes 


20  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Oil  to  say  that  when  Gregory  became  pope,  he  did 
not  rest  until  he  had  sent  missionaries  to  convert  these 
people.  The  church  services  were  conducted  in  Latin ; 
and  probably  not  a  few  words  which  have  come  to  us 
from  that  language  were  introduced  into  England  by 
the  missionaries,  during  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries. 
The  English  People.  —  It  has  already  been  said  that 
the  Teutons  did  not  all  come  into  the  country  at  one 
time.  Gradually  their  numbers  and  their  power  in- 
creased, until  there  were  seven  prominent  kingdoms, 
which  are  often  called  the  "  Heptarchy,"  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  "  the  rule  of  seven."  But  we  must  not 
suppose  that  exactly  seven  kingdoms  existed  at  one 
time  under  one  common  ruler.  The  Jutes  owned  one 
kinsfdom,  which  retained  its  British  name  of  Kent. 
The  Saxons  owned  three  kingdoms,  —  Wes-sex,  Es- 
sex, and  Sus-sex,  the  names  being  equivalents  of  West 
Saxons,  East  Saxons,  and  South  Saxons.  The  Angles 
owned  the  largest  territory,  having  three  kingdoms, 
—  Mercia,  East  Anglia,  and  Northumberland.  This 
last  means  tJie  la^id  north  of  the  Humher.  East  Anglia, 
the  home  of  the  East  Angles,  was  divided  between 
the  North-folk  and  the  South  folk,  from  whicli  names 
come  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  The  different  tribes  so 
often  quarrelled  among  themselves  that  the  number 
and  the  boundaries  of  their  kingdoms  Avere  continually 
changing.  Nevertheless,  the  English,  as  we  may  now 
call  them,  made  great  progress  in  learning  and  civili- 
zation. In  time,  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons 
became  the  ruling  one.  Their  most  famous  king  was 
Alfred  the  Great,  who  became  king  of  Wessex  in  871. 
He  was  a  brave  warrior,  a  persevering  scholar,  a  wise 
ruler,  and  a  good  and  noble  man. 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  21 

The  Danish  Invasions.  —  The  enemies  whom  the 
English  had  to  fight  iii  the  days  of  Alfred  were  the 
Scandinavians,  often  called  simply  the  Danes,  and 
sometimes  the  Norsemen  or  Northmen.  They  lived  in 
the  southern  part  of  Denmark,  in  part  of  Norway  and 
Sweden,  and  in  the  very  countries  from  which  the 
English  had  come.  They  were  savage  heathen,  as  the 
Saxons  had  once  been.  During  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries  they  made  many  incursions  into  England, 
plundering  the  towns,  burning  the  monasteries  and 
churches,  and  massacring  the  people.  Sometimes  they 
made  alliance  with  the  Welsh,  and  ravaged  the  adjoin- 
ing kingdom  of  Wessex.  They  were  often  defeated  in 
battle,  but  never  lost  their  foot-hold  in  the  country. 
Sometimes  they  obtained  control  of  the  kingdom ;  so 
that  in  the  list  of  the  kings  of  England  during  the 
eleventh  century  there  are  several  Danish  names. 
Among  these  Danish  sovereigns  was  King  Canute,  who, 
according  to  the  well-known  story,  tried  to  make  the 
sea  retire  at  his  command.  The  history  of  this  period 
is  full  of  accounts  of  wars  between  the  Danes  and  the 
English. 

Effect  of  the  Danish  Invasion  upon  the  Language 
of  England.  —  The  Danes,  it  must  be  remembered, 
belonged  to  the  same  Teutonic  race  with  the  Saxons  ; 
so  it  was  comparatively  easy  for  them  to  settle  down  in 
England  as  part  of  the  English  people.  They  were  soon 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  became  almost  as  civilized 
as  the  Saxons.  Their  language  was  so  closely  related 
to  the  English  that  their  coming  into  England  made  no 
great  change  in  the  speech  of  that  country.  Among 
the  words  introduced  by  the  Danes  are  halt^  fling,  gust, 


22  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

ransach,  rap,  whisk,  ivJtirl,  and  whim.  Whitby,  Derby, 
Enderby,  etc.,  are  Danish  names,  the  termination  bi/ 
meaning  toivn. 

The  Northmen.  —  While  some  of  the  Norsemen  were 
plundering  England,  others  of  them  were  making  the 
same  sort  of  trouble  in  France.     They  were  just  such  |. 

fierce  roving  pirates  as  the  Saxons  had  been  in  the  fifth 
century.  Under  the  leadership  of  the  Vikings,  as  their 
chiefs  Avere  called,  they  made  their  first  visits  to  the 
coast  of  France  during  the  reign  of  the  great  Emperor 
Charlemagne,  about  the  year  800.  Again  and  again 
they  came  in  ever-increasing  numbers,  and  many  times 
they  seized  upon  portions  of  the  land  and  dwelt  there.  ! 

Finally  the  French  were  obliged  to  submit  to  their 
remaining  in  the  country,  just  as  the  English  had  to 
share  their  possessions  with  the  Danes  in  order  to  make 
peace  with  them.  At  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury the  king  of  France  ceded  to  Rollo,  the  leader  of 
the  Northmen,  a  large  province  in  the  north  of  France. 
This  was  called  Normandy,  and  its  inhabitants  came  to 
be  known  as  Normans.  They  soon  learned  to  imitate 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  French  people,  and 
to  speak  their  language.  The  ruler  of  the  province 
became  a  vassal  of  the  French  king,  and  had  the  title 
of  Duke.  AVhen  the  Normans  had  lived  in  France 
about  one  hundred  years,  they  were,  in  some  things, 
far  superior  to  the  English.  Their  speech  was  more 
refined,  their  social  habits  more  polite,  and  their  minds 
much  better  cultivated.  Being  so  near  neighbors,  they 
became,  of  course,  well  acquainted  with  the  English, 
and  some  of  the  early  English  kings  married  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  Norman  nobles. 


f 


/ 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  23 

The  Norman  Conquest.  —  William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, determined  to  become  king  of  England.  He 
asserted  that  the  throne  had  been  promised  him  by 
Edward  the  Confessor,  the  English  king  who  built 
Westminster  Abbey.  Edward's  mother  was  a  Norman 
lady,  and  he  had  spent  all  of  his  early  life  in  her  native 
land ;  so  it  is  not  strange  that  he  should  have  been 
very  fond  of  the  Normans  and  of  their  ways.  When 
he  became  king,  he  offended  his  subjects  by  showing 
his  partiality  too  plainly.  He  invited  the  Norman 
nobles  over  to  England,  and  appointed  them  to  the 
highest  offices  in  the  kingdom.  Edward  had  no  chil- 
dren, and  so  the  Saxon  people  were  very  anxious  as  to 
who  should  be  his  successor.  Their  choice  was  Harold, 
the  brother  of  Edward's  wife  and  the  son  of  Earl 
Godwin,  one  of  the  Saxon  nobles.  Not  long  before 
this,  Harold  had  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of 
France,  and  had  been  befriended  by  William.  While 
Harold  was  at  the  court  of  Normandy,  apparentlj^  a 
guest  but  really  a  prisoner,  William  made  him  promise 
in  the  most  solemn  manner,  that  in  case  of  Edward's 
death,  he  would  do  all  in  his  power  to  help  William 
gain  the  English  crown.  Edward  died  in  January, 
1066,  and  in  spite  of  his  promise  to  William,  Harold 
made  great  haste  to  be  crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
When  William  heard  of  this,  he  spent  several  months 
in  collecting  an  army,  and  then  sailed  for  England. 
Harold,  at  the  head  of  the  Saxon  army,  marched  to 
meet  him  at  Hastings ;  and  there  a  terrible  battle  was 
fousfht,  in  which  the  Normans  were  victorious,  and 
Harold  was  slain.  This  battle  of  Hastings,  fought  on 
Oct.  14,  1066,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important 
events  in  history. 


24  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

The  Normans  in  England.  —  When  William  of  Nor- 
mandy, better  known  as  William  the  Conqueror,  became 
king  of  England,  the  Normans  came  over  in  great 
numbers,  seized  the  estates  which  belonged  *  to  the 
Saxon  nobles,  and  took  the  political  and  religious  gov- 
ernment into  their  own  hands.  The  Saxons  became 
really  the  servants  of  the  Nt^rmans.  William  was  very 
severe  in  dealing  with  his  new  subjects.  They  were 
heavily  taxed,  and  in  order  to  be  exact  in  the  matter, 
he  caused  an  inventory  of  each  man's  personal  property 
and  a  careful  survey  of  his  land  to  be  made,  the  whole 
being  recorded  in  the  "  Domesday  Book,"  which  is  still 
in  existence.  More  than  this,  he  massacred  all  the 
inhabitants  of  towns  which  rebelled  against  his  decrees ; 
and  laid  waste  many  villages  in  order  to  make  himself 
a  Imnting-ground,  "  the  New  Forest,"  giving  the  Saxons 
nothing  in  return  for  their  land.  The  Norman  barons 
imitated  their  king  in  harshness  and  insolence  towards 
the  conquered  Saxons.  Much  good,  however,  came  out 
of  all  this  evil.  With  all  their  faults,  the  Normans 
were  in  some  respects  superior  to  the  Saxons.  They 
were  more  enterprising  and  ambitious,  more  refined 
and  cultivated.  They  were  better  soldiers,  too,  and 
better  mechanics.  Besides,  they  had  broader  ideas, 
and  knew  more  about  other  countries  in  the  world. 
Tlie  two  races  found  that  there  were  many  good  things 
which  they  could  learn  from  each  other ;  and  so  in  the 
course  of  many  generations  the  old  relations  of  master 
and  servant  disappeared,  and  the  two  formed  a  united 
people.  The  Saxons  ceased  to  hate  their  conquer- 
ors, and  the  Normans  were  proud  to  call  themselves 
English. 


I 


i« 


HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  25 

Effect  of  the  Norman  Conquest  upon  the  English 
Language.  —  The  Normans  tried  to  have  their  Lan- 
guage become  the  national  speech.  It  was  spoken  in 
the  schools,  the  camps,  the  courts,  and  the  churches. 
It  was  also  the  language  of  the  higher  circles  of  society. 
Thus  it  happens  that  we  have  many  Latin  and  French 
words  pertaining  to  military  science,  to  the  law,  to  art, 
to  poetry,  and  to  the  courtesies  of  social  life,  most  of 
which  were  brought  in  by  the  Normans.  We  must 
remember  that  they  spoke  what  was  called  the  Nor- 
man-French, having  adopted  not  only  the  religion,  but 
the  language  of  the  people  in  whose  land  they  had 
come  to  dwell.  The  Norman-French  was  really  the 
Latin  language,  which  had  been  corrupted  by  the 
Celtic  speech  of  the  Gauls  and  by  the  Teutonic  tongue 
of  the  Franks,  and  which  was  possibly  modified  by  the 
Norse  dialects.  It  is  often  called  the  "  unlettered " 
idiom,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Latin  of  clas- 
sical literature.  The  main  reason  why  the  Normans 
did  not  succeed  in  makino;  French  the  lano^uag^e  of 
England  was  that  the  measures  by  which  they  sought 
to  gain  this  end  were  so  harsh  that  the  Saxons  rebelled 
and  stubbornly  refused  to  obey  the  dictates  of  their 
conquerors.  Another  reason  was  that  the  Saxons  were 
so  much  more  numerous  than  their  masters.  In  their 
homes  and  about  their  daily  business  they  used  the 
familiar  Saxon  words,  instead  of  the  more  polished 
speech  of  the  French.  As  time  went  on,  the  two  races 
intermarried;  and  so  these  simple  Saxon  terms  came 
into  general  use.  If  we  compare  some  of  our  Saxon 
words  with  those  of  like  meaning  which  come  to  us 
from   the   Latin  or  French,   we  shall    notice   that  the 


26 


LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 


"every-day"  words  are  commonly  Saxon;  and  the  more 
ornamental,  "  high-sounding "  ones  of  foreign  origin. 
For  example,  we  have  — 


Saxon. 

Like, 

Many, 

Almighty, 

Heavenly, 

Truth, 

Happiness, 


Foreign. 

similar. 

numerous. 

oumipoteut. 

celestial. 

veracity. 

felicity. 


The  greatest  effect  of  the  Norman  Conquest  upon  the 
language  was  that  it  introduced  the  habit  of  borrowing 
words  from  other  languages.  Before  the  Conquest  the 
English  had  hated  everything  foreign,  and  had  clung  to 
their  old  forms  of  speech.  When  the  Normans  became 
a  part  of  the  English  nation,  these  prejudices  gradually 
disappeared,  until  it  became  the  most  natural  thing 
in  the  world  to  use  many  foreign  words.  This  habit 
once  formed  was  not  easy  to  break ;  so  the  English 
have  continued  to  enrich  their  language  in  this  way. 
Another  result  of  the  Conquest  was  that  it  led  to  great 
improvements  in  the  structure  of  the  language.  To 
see  what  a  serious  thing  English  grammar  used  to 
be,  let  us  compare  our  adjective  pronoun  that  with 
the  inflection  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  ]>cet,  as  given  by 
Angus. 

Plural. 


ha. 

hara. 
ham. 
ha. 


Singular. 

Mas. 

Fern. 

Neut 

Norn. 

se 

seo 

haet 

Gen. 

haes 

hsere 

haes 

Dat. 

ham 

hsere 

ham 

Ace. 

hone 

ha 

haet 

HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  27 

Growth  of  the  Lang-iiag-e.  —  Since  the  Norman  Con- 
quest there  has  been  no  invasion  of  sufificient  importance 
to  cause  any  great  change  in  the  language.  Tlie  English 
of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  is  really  the 
same  language  which  we  speak.  It  does  not  look  like 
it,  to  be  sure ;  but,  as  one  writer  says,  "  Neither  does  a 
child  a  year  old  look  as  he  does  when  he  has  become 
a  man  fifty  years  old."  The  language  has  only  "  grown 
up,"  as  the  child  does.  We  call  the  Latin  and  the 
Greek  "  dead  languages,"  because  they  are  no  longer  in 
constant  use  as  the  speech  of  any  people.  The  English, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  not  only  a  living  language,  but  a 
growing  one.  Changes  are  constantly  taking  place  in 
the  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  words,  and  in  gram- 
matical forms.  There  are  fashions  in  language,  as  in 
many  other  things.  If  we  examine  a  book  pul)lished 
more  than  one  hundred  years  ago,  we  find  many  things 
that  look  very  odd.  Many  of  the  s's  look  like  /'s; 
music  and  public  have  k  added  to  the  last  syllable  of 
each ;  honor  and  labor  have  ?t  in  the  second  syllable. 

The  following  is  copied  from  an  article  which  a|)- 
pearedin  the  "Connecticut  Journal"  of  Oct.  19, 1796  :  • — 

"  It  cannot  be  expected,  that,  if,  happily,  our  Judges  fhould  be 
competent  to  the  tafk,  they  will  apply  themfelves  with  affidui- 
ty,  to  the  reduction  of  our  common  law  from  a  ftate  of  chaotick 
confufion  to  fyftematic  order;  when  the  Legiflature  at  their  next 
feffions,  without  even  a  plaufible  reafon,  may  deprive  them  of  their 
feats.     This  would  be,  indeed,  to  labour  for  the  meat  that  peri/hetk." 

The  past  tense  of  speak  used  to  be  spake,  which  is 
often  used  in  the  Bible.  In  olden  times  a  Avell-educated 
man  would  no  more  have  said  /  spoke  than  he  would 
have  said  I  done  and  /  seen.  In  Shakespeare's  time  the 
pronoun  its  had  iust  come  into  the  language.     Now  we 


28  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

should  not  know  how  to  get  along  without  this  useful 
little  word.  New  words  are  all  the  time  being  intro- 
duced, and  old  words  are  gaining  new  meanings.  A 
great  many  illustrations  may  be  found  in  the  "  Supple- 
ment "  to  the  large  dictionaries.  In  order  to  understand 
how  the  language  came  to  have  its  present  form,  we 
must  notice  some  of  the  ways  in  which  it  has  grown. 

Influence  of  Commerce.  —  As  civilization  increased, 
the  English  became  great  travellers  and  traders,  and 
sent  out  colonies  into  all  parts  of  the  known  world. 
Naturally,  the  travellers  introduced  foreign  terms  in 
telling  the  story  of  their  wanderings;  and  the  traders 
brought  back  to  England  Avith  the  strange  productions 
of  other  lands,  the  native  names  for  the  articles.  Some- 
times the  name  was  derived  from  the  name  of  the  place 
whence  the  merchandise  came ;  for  example,  damask, 
from  Damascus;  calico,  from  Calicut  in  India;  sardine, 
from  Sardinia.  The  colonists  almost  unconsciously  in- 
troduced into  the  language  many  forms  of  expression 
which  they  were  in  the  habit  of  hearing  from  the 
natives  about  them,  just  as  a  child  who  has  a  French  or 
a  German  nurse  learns  to  speak  her  language  without 
realizing  that  it  is  a  foreign  tongue. 

Influence  of  Education.  —  The  growth  of  our  lan- 
guage is  mainly  due  to  the  increase  of  learning  and  to 
the  multiplication  of  books.  In  the  jNliddle  Ages  almost 
all  the  books  were  written  in  Latin.  The  learned  men 
of  that  time  knew  more  about  that  language  than  they 
did  about  their  own.  King  Alfred  translated  several 
books  into  the  Anglo-Saxon,  so  that  the  common  people 
could  read  them ;  but  most  of  the  kings  cared  too  little 
about  learning  to  take  so  much  trouble.     Before  the 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  29 

invention  of  printing,  the  making  of  books  was  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  monasteries,  where  the  patient 
monks  spent  years  in  copying  a  single  Latin  work  on 
philosophy  or  religion.  A  great  many  Latin  words  were 
introduced  into  our' language  in  this  way.  Education 
has  now  become  so  general  that  the  English-speaking 
people  are  familiar  with  most  of  the  other  languages 
spoken  in  the  world;  and  the  "making  of  many  books" 
has  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  common  people  the 
thought  and  research  of  all  the  centuries.  In  this  way, 
mainly,  has  come  into  use  a  vast  number  of  foreign 
words.  At  first  they  are  distinguished  from  English 
words  by  being  printed  in  Italics  or  inclosed  in  quota- 
tion marks ;  but  in  time  this  distinction  ceases  to  be 
made,  and  they  are  said  to  be  "•  domesticated."  Such 
words  are  often  Anglicized;  that  is,  the  spelling  and 
pronunciation  are  changed  to  make  them  look  and 
sound  more  like  English  words.  From  the  Italian  we 
have  obtained  our  musical  terms,  and  from  the  French 
our  terms  of  cookery  and  fashion.  Many  such  words 
can  be  traced  back  to  the  Latin.  We  can  generally 
tell  whether  a  word  comes  directly  from  the  Latin  or 
indirectly  through  the  French,  by  noticing  its  form. 
If  the  spelling  has  been  changed,  it  is  almost  sure  to 
have  come  through  the  French.  This  may  be  more 
apparent  from  the  following  examples:  — 


Latin. 

Directly  from  the  Latin. 

Through  the  French. 

Populus, 

popular, 

people. 

Fructus, 

fructify. 

fruit. 

Deceptum, 

deception. 

deceit. 

Fidelis, 

fidelity. 

fealty. 

Regis, 

regal, 

royal. 

Fragilis, 

fragile, 

frail. 

30  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Influence  of  Science.  —  The  prominence  that  was 
given  to  classical  studies  during  the  Middle  Ages  will 
account  for  the  fact  that  most  of  the  terms  which  were 
peculiar  to  the  sciences  then  known  are  of  classical 
origin.  In  the  modern  sciences,  scholars  have  followed 
the  same  usage,  borrowing  almost  invariably  from  the 
Greek.  It  is  estimated  that  nine-tenths  of  our  scientific 
terras  are  Greek.  Arithmetic,  Creography,  Grammar,  and 
History  are  all  Greek  names,  as  are  many  of  the  terms 
which  are  used  in  them.  With  the  progress  of  educa- 
tion, these  technical  terms,  as  they  are  called,  have 
become  more  and  more  widely  known ;  and  they  form 
an  important  element  in  our  language. 

Influence  of  Invention  and  Discovery. — Many 
words  have  been  added  to  our  language  as  one  result 
of  the  mechanical  ingenuity  of  the  English-speaking 
people.  They  seem  to  be  less  ingenious  in  word-making 
than  they  are  in  machine-making ;  and  instead  of  form- 
ing words  out  of  elements  in  their  own  language,  they 
go  to  the  Latin  or  the  Greek  to  find  names  for  their 
inventions  and  discoveries.  We  have,  to  be  sure,  such 
words  as  steamboat,  railroad,  type-writer,  and  oil-ivell, 
which  were  formed  from  elements  already  in  use ;  but 
they  are  few,  as  compared  with  the  names  of  classical 
origin,  such  as  telegraph,  locomotive,  bicycle,  and  petro- 
leum. The  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  prefer  to  use 
home-made  names  for  their  inventions.  For  example, 
they  call  the  telephone  a  "far-speaker."  They  use 
many  of  these  compounds,  too,  in  place  of  the  classical 
names  in  science  and  literature.  Their  name  for  hydro- 
gen may  be  translated  water-substance,  and  their  word 
for  dictionary  is  the  very  sensible  compound,  ivord-booh 


\'^ 


HISTORY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  31 

Influence  of  New  Ideas.  —  During  the  latter  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  not  a  few  words  have  been 
introduced  from  other  languages,  or  deliberately  coined, 
to  express  new  ideas  in  art,  science,  literatui^e,  politics, 
philosophy,  and  religion.  New  subjects  of  thought  oc- 
cupy the  minds  of  men ;  new  phases  of  society,  new 
questions  of  life  and  duty  and  destiny.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  word  already  in  use  which  can  be  made  to 
express  this  new  thought.  We  have  a  host  of  these 
old  words  with  modern  meanings.  For  example,  social 
science;  differetitiation,  as  used  in  metaphysics ;  evolution, 
as  used  in  geology ;  free-trader ;  anarchist ;  'prohation 
after  death ;  realistic,  as  used  in  art  and  literature. 
Some  of  the  new  words  which  have  been  introduced 
in  this  way  are  Nihilism,  optimist,  pessimist,  impression- 
ist, as  an  art  term ;  agnostic,  dude,  mugwump,  and  U7ii- 
versolofiy. 

Number  of  Words  in  the  English  Language.  —  It 
is  estimated  that  the  large  dictionaries  contain  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  words.  Of  these,  a  com- 
paratively small  number  —  Professor  Whitney  says,  from 
three  to  five  thousand  —  are  all  that  even  cultivated 
people  need  to  use  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  speak- 
ing and  writing.  It  is  said  that  Shakespeare  used  about 
fifteen  thousand  different  words. 

Elements  of  the  English  Language.  —  The  English 
language  is  said  to  be  "  composite,"  because  it  is  com- 
posed of  words  from  other  languages.  No  other  tongue 
is  made  up  of  parts  taken  from  so  many  sources.  For 
this  reason,  it  is  very  perplexing  to  foreigners,  since 
the  spelling,  pronunciation,  and  meaning  of  the  different 
classes  of  words  cannot  be  determined  by  any  one  set 


32  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

of  rules.  There  is  this  advantage,  however,  in  its  being 
made  up  of  so  many  elements :  there  are  several  ways 
of  expressing  a  single  idea,  so  that  variety  is  easily  se- 
cured. Besides,  we  can  express  more  accurately  slight 
distinctions  in  meaning  and  delicate  shades  of  thought 
than  is  possible  in  other  languages.  The  most  impor- 
tant elements  have  already  been  mentioned  and  their 
presence  in  the  language  explained.  We  will  now 
review  them  in  the  form  of  a  summary. 

ELEMENTS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

Celtic.  —  Few  words  left  by  ancient  Britons.  Some  through 
French,  Spanish,  and  Italian. 

Scandinavian.  —  Introduced  by  Danes  in  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies. Some  brought  by  Northmen  into  France,  and  thence  into 
England  after  the  Conquest. 

Saxon.  —  Of  words  in  large  dictionaries,  less  than  one-half  are 
Saxon.     Of  words  in  common  use,  about  four-fifths  are  Saxon. 

Latin.  —  A  few  Latin  words  left  by  Romans ;  all  proper  names. 
Ecclesiastical  terms  introduced  by  missionaries.  Words  coming 
through  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  Introduced  by  learned  men 
and  education.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  words  in  the  dictionary  are 
Latin  in  origin. 

Greek.  —  Nine-tenths  of  all  our  scientific  terms,  introduced  by 
scholars  and  books.     Also  names  for  inventions. 

Miscellaneous.  —  Introduced  mainly  by  commerce.  Either 
native  names  for  articles  of  merchandise,  or  names  derived  from 
names  of  places.  Ex.  damask,  from  Damascus;  tariff,  from 
Tarifa;  cambric,  from  Cambray;  chestnut,  from  Castanea,  in 
Fontus;  ermine,  from  Armenia;  muslin,  from  Mosul;  florin, 
from  Florence;  canary,  from  the  Canary  Islands. 

Hebrew.  —  Ex.  seraphim,  cherubim,  amen,  ephod,  jubilee,  sab- 
bath, cinnamon,  Satan,  shibboleth,  manna. 


HISTORY   OP   THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  33 

Arabic.  —  Ex.  algebra,  almanac,  elixir,  zero,  talisman,  coffee, 
sugar,  lemon,  giraffe,  gazelle,  syrup,  alcohol,  magazine,  cotton,  as- 
sassin, mosque. 

Persian.  —  Ex.  caravan,  dervish,  scarlet,  azure,  lilac,  chess,  bazaar, 
shawl,  turban,  orange,  horde,  paradise. 

Turkish.  —  Ex.  divan,  scimitar,  dragoman,  tulip,  ottoman,  kiosk. 

Chinese.  —  Ex.  tea,  Bohea,  Hyson,  china  (ware),  joss,  junk.  Nan- 
keen. 

Malay.  —  Ex.  bantam,  sago,  ratan,  gutta-percha,  bamboo,  gong, 
mandarin,  mango,  caddy,  cassowary. 

Hindu.  —  Ex.  calico,  chintz,  toddy,  lac,  jungle,  banyan,  bunga- 
low, pagoda,  palanquin,  shampoo. 

Polynesian.  —  Ex.  taboo,  tattoo,  kangaroo,  boomerang. 

West  Indian.  —  Ex.  tobacco,  maize,  hurricane,  canoe,  cannibal, 
buccaneer. 

North  American.  —  Ex.  squaw,  tomahawk,  wigwam,  mush,  opos- 
sum, mustang,  tomato,  pemmican,  chocolate  (Mexican). 

South  American.  —  Ex.  hammock,  potato,  tolu,  caoutchouc, 
guano,  mahogany,  pampas,  tapioca. 

Italian.  —  Ex.  banditti,  gazette,  canto,  opera,  piano,  soprano, 
piazza,  malaria,  umbrella,  concert,  carnival,  studio,  regatta,  volcano, 
ditto. 

Spanish.  —  Ex.  mosquito,  negro,  alligator,  cigar,  grandee,  cork, 
Creole,  desperado,  tornado,  vanilla,  Eldorado,  indigo,  buffalo. 

Portuguese.  —  Ex.  palaver,  caste,  marmalade,  molasses,  lasso, 
cocoa-nut,  albatross,  cobra,  fetich. 

French.  —  Ex.  etiquette,  belle,  depot,  penchant,  matinee,  em- 
ploye, debris,  ennui,  trousseau,  debut,  petite,  menu,  soiree,  regime, 
canard. 

Dutch.  —  Ex.  yacht,  sloop,  schooner,  yawl,  ballast,  boor,  reef, 
skates,  smack,  smuggle. 

African.  —  Ex.  gnu,  gorilla,  kraal,  zebra,  guinea,^  oasis. 

Egyptian.  —  Ex.  ammonia. 

Russian.  —  Ex.  knout,  czar,  drosky,  rouble,  steppe. 


34 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


QUESTIONS   rOK  EEVIEW. 

1 .  From  wTiat  is  the  word  language  derived  ? 

2.  Mention  three  meanings  of  the  word. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  Linguistics? 

4.  How  old  is  the  science,  as  compared  with  others? 

5.  What  is  a  theory? 

6.  State  tliree  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  language. 

7.  Which  do  you  accept?     Why? 

8.  Why  cannot  we  tell  what  were  the  beginnings  of  speech? 

9.  State  three  theories  on  this  subject. 

10.  Which  seems  the  most  reasonable? 

11.  What  was  the  old  theory  about  the  original  language? 

12.  How  was  it  proved  to  be  incorrect? 

13.  What  other  science  was  based  upon  a  mistaken  notion? 

14.  What  was  the  Sanskrit? 

15.  To  what  discoveries  did  the  study  of  this  language  lead? 

16.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  family  of  languages? 

17.  Give  three  names  for  the  largest  family  of  languages. 

18.  Explain  how  this  famil}-  was  formed. 

19.  Give  two  names  for  the  second  great  family. 

20.  How  many  dialects  are  there  in  the  world? 

21.  Why  do  we  not  classify  all  of  them  into  families? 

22.  What  seven  groups  of  languages   belong  to  the  Indo- 

European  family? 

23.  AVhat  is  the  oldest  of  the  languages  of  India? 

24.  Of  the  languages  of  Persia? 

25.  Of  Germany  ? 

26.  Where  do  the  Latin  and  the  Greek  belong  in  this  classi- 

fication ? 

27.  What  old  translations  of  the  Bible  are  mentioned? 

28.  What  modern  languages  are  Celtic? 

29.  To  what  group  does  the  Russian  language  belong? 


HISTORY    OF   THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  35 

30.  The  Norwegian  ?     The  French  ?     The  Welsh  ? 

31.  What  is  the  place  of  the  English  language  in  this  family  ? 

32.  What  are  the  chief  Semitic  lanouasjes? 

33.  AVhv  is  this  family  an  interesting  one? 

34.  What  can  you  say  about  any  of  its  members? 

35.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  wjlection. 

36.  Give  examples  of  inflectional  languages. 

37.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  Semitic  inflection? 

38.  How   do    the   members    of   the    Indo-European   famil}' 

resemble  one  another? 

39.  How  do  you  account  for  these  resemblances? 

40.  Where  was  the  traditional  home  of  Japhet? 

41.  What  theory  in  regard  to  the  settlement  of  Asia  and 

Europe  ? 

42.  What  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Celts  were  the  first  to 

go  westward  ? 

43.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  Britons? 

44.  How  did  the  Romans  become  interested  in  them? 

45.  Explain  the  names  Britain  and  Briton. 

->46.    Who  led  the  first  Roman  expedition  against  the  Britons? 
When  ? 
f  47.    What  was  the  result? 
^48.    Who  were  the  Druids? 

49.  AVhcre  is  Carnac?     Stonehenge?     Why  interesting? 

50.  How  long  did  the  Romans  claim  Britain? 

tM.    What  were  the  relations  between  the  two  races? 

}.fi2.    Are  there  any  traces  in  England  of  the  Roman  rule? 

Where? 
SB.    Why  did  the  Romans  leave  Britain? 
^M.    What  was  the  effect  of  the  Roman  occupation  upon  the 

language  ? 
O^.    Give  an  example  of  the  words  left  by  the  Romans. 
}6^.    What  can  you  tell  about  the  Teutons? 
57.    AVhat  is  the  origin  of  the  name  France? 


3G  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

58.  What  kingdoms  were  established  by  the  Goths? 

59.  Why  did  not  the  Eomans  return  to  Britain? 
GO.    When  and  why  were  they  asked  to  return? 

Gl.  AYhat  tribes  of  the  Teutons  lived  on  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Baltic  Sea? 

62.  What  kind  of  people  were  they? 

63.  WIk)  was  Vortigern?     What  bargain  did  he  make? 

64.  Why  did  he  repent  of  it? 

65.  Give  an  account  of  the  Saxon  Conquest. 

66.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Britons? 

67.  What  other  people  have  been  similarly  treated? 
G.s.  Give  another  name  for  Brittany. 

69.  Mention  some  Celtic  words  in  our  language. 

70.  Explain  the  term  Saxon  Heptarcliy, 

71.  Where  did  the  Jiites  live?     The  Angles?    The  Saxons? 

72.  From  which  tribe  did  the  country  take  its  name?    Why? 

73.  Explain  the  term  Anglo-Saxon. 

74.  What  is  the  origin  of  names  for  days  of  the  week? 

75.  Who  was  Alfred  the  Great? 

76.  How  was  Christianity  introduced  into  England? 

77.  Who  wa&Wycliffe? 

78.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Danes? 

79.  Name  one  of  their  kings. 

80.  How  long  did  their  incursions  last? 

81.  What  were  some  of  the  words  introduced  by  them? 

82.  Why  was  the  language  so  little  changed  by  their  coming? 

83.  Explain    the    terms    Northmen^     Vikings,    Normandy, 

Scandinavia. 

84.  When  did  the  Northmen  invade  France? 

85.  What  was  the  result? 

86.  Explain  the  expression  Norman-French. 

87.  What  events  led  to  the  Norman  Conquest? 

88.  When  and  how  did  the  Normans  conquer  England? 

89.  Who  was  the  last  of  the  Saxon  kings?    The  first  of  the 

Normans  ? 


HISTORY   OF    THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  37 

90.  Compare  the  Norman  and  the  Saxon  people. 

91.  What  were   the  relations  between   the   two   races  in 

England  ? 

92.  What  is  the  ' '  Domesday  Book  "  ? 

93.  What  two  races  united  to  form  the  English  people? 

94.  How  did   the  Normans   try   to   make    their  language 

popular? 

95.  Explain  what  language  tliey  spoke. 

96.  Why  did  they  not  succeed  ? 

97.  What  difference  do  we  notice  between  words  from  the 

two  sources? 

98.  How  did  the  Norman  Conquest  affect  the  language? 

99.  Have    any    later  events    in    history    made    any   great 

changes  in  it? 

100.  AVhat  are  "  dead  "  languages? 

101.  Show  that  our  language  is  growing. 

102.  Mention  five  ways  in  which  words  have  been  introduced 

since  the  Norman  Conquest. 

103.  Give  examples  of  words  introduced  by  commerce. 

104.  What  was  the  state  of  learning  in  the  Middle  Ages? 

105.  In  what  way,  chiefly,  have  Latin  words  been  introduced 

into  English? 

106.  Explain  the  expressions  Anglicized,  domesticated. 

107.  What  kind  of  words  do  we  borrow  from  the  French? 

From  the  Italian  ? 

108.  Explain  and  illustrate  the  two  classes  of  words  bor- 

rowed from  the  Latin. 

109.  From   what  languages,    mainly,    do    we    derive    our 

scientific  terms?     Why? 

110.  What  are  technical  teniis? 

111.  Illustrate  "  home-made"  names  for  inventions. 

112.  What  are  some  of  the  names  borrowed  for  this  purpose? 

113.  What  is  the  usage  of  the  Germans,  in  this  respect? 

Illustrate. 


38  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

114.  Give  examples  of  words  used  to  express  new  ideas. 

115.  How  many  words  are  there  in  our  language? 

116.  What  part  of  these  are  Saxon?     Latin? 

117.  What  advantages  does  the  English  language  possess? 

118.  Account  for  the  Celtic  words  in  our  language.     The 

Scandinavian.    The  Latin.    The  Greek.    The  Saxon. 

119.  Give  one  word  derived  from  each  of  the  following: 

Hebrew,  Persian,  Italian,  Spanish,  etc. 

120.  Why  is  the  English  language  called  our  mother -tongue  9 


REFERENCES. 

Language  and  the  Study  of  Language.     Whitney. 

History  of  the  English  LangiTage.     Lounsbury. 

English,  Past  and  Present.     Trench. 

Lectures  on  the  English  Language.     Marsh. 

Language  and  Languages.     Farrar. 

Life  and  Growth  of  Language.     Whitney. 

Origin  and  Histoiy  of  the  English  Language.     Marsh. 

Studies  in  English.     Scheie  De  Vere. 

Philology  of  the  English  Tongue.     [New  edition.]     Earle. 

Hand-Book  of  the  English  Tongue.     Angus. 

The  English  Language.     Meiklejohn. 

Science  of  Language.     Max  Miiller. 

A  Child's  History  of  England.     [Hastings.]     Dickens. 

Lectures  on  the  History  of  England.     Guest. 

Leading  Facts  in  English  History.     Montgomery. 

Childhood  of  the  English  Nation.     Armitage. 

The  IVIaking  of  England.     Green. 

History  of  England  for  Beginners.     Buckley. 

Decisive  Events  in  History,     [Hastings.]     Archer. 

Short  History  of  the  English  People.     Green. 

History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.     Sharon  Turner. 

A  Short  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest.     Freeman. 


HTSTOPtY   OF   THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  39 

Old  English  History  for  Children.     Freeman. 

Alfred  the  Great.     Hughes. 

Traces  of  History  in  the  Xames  of  Places.     Edmunds. 

The  Norman  Baron.     The  Skeleton  in  Armor.     Longfellow. 

The  Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore.     Church. 

The  Visit  of  the  Vikings.    T.  W.  Higginson.    Harper's,  Sept.,  1882. 

Vol.  LXV.  p.  515. 
The  Viking  Ship.     John  S.  White.      Scribner's,  Nov.,  1887.     Vol. 

II.  p.  604. 
The  Bayeux  Tapestry.      Edward  J.  Lowell.      Scribner's,  March, 

1887.    Vol.  I.  p.  333. 


40  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


CHAPTER   IL 

THE    ANGLO-SAXON    ELEMENT. 

The  Study  of  Etymology.  —  In  order  to  use  good 
English,  we  must  know  how  to  choose  our  words.  To 
this  end,  we  should  learn  to  tell  from  the  looks  of  a 
word  whether  it  is  really  English  or  borrowed  from 
some  other  tongue.  We  should  know,  too,  just  what 
the  word  means,  so  as  to  be  able  to  use  it  in  the  right 
way.  For  this  reason,  we  must  learn  the  most  impor- 
tant principles  of  Etymology,  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  words.  An  explana- 
tion of  terms  used  in  the  science  is  given  below,  for  the 
benefit  of  any  who  may  not  be  familiar  with  them. 

The  Root  of  a  Word.  —  When  a  word  cannot  be 
reduced  to  a  simpler  form  in  the  language  to  which  it 
belongs,  it  is  called  a  root,  a  radical,  or  a  primitive 
word.     Ex.  go,  man. 

Compound  Words. — When  a  word  is  formed  by 
uniting  two  or  more  simple  words,  it  is  called  a  com- 
pound word.     Ex.  butter-fly,  rose-bud. 

Derivative  Words. —  When  a  word  is  made  by  join- 
ing to  a  root  either  a  prefix  or  a  suffix,  or  both,  it  is 
called  a  derivative  word. 

A  Prefix  is  a  syllable  or  syllables  placed  before  the 
root,  to  vary  the  meaning  of  the  word ;  as,  i7-legal,  not 
legal. 

A  Suffix  is  a  syllable  or  syllables  placed  at  the  end 


THE   ANGLO-SAXON    ELEMENT.  41 

of  a  root,  to  vary  the  meaning  of  the  word ;  as,  stud- 
ent^  one  who  studies. 

An  Affix  is  the  general  name,  referring  to  a  syllable 
fixed  to  the  root.  It  is,  therefore,  applied  to  either  a 
prefix  or  a  suffix. 

Two  Great  Elements  of  the  Lianguage. —  The  Eng- 
lish language,  as  has  been  shown,  is  made  up  of  words 
from  many  sources ;  but  for  convenience,  it  may  be 
considered  as  containing  two  main  elements  :  — ■ 

1.  The  Anglo-Saxon,  including  words  from  other  Teu- 
tonic tongues,  such  as  the  Danish. 

2.  The  Classical,  including  the  Latin  and  the  Greek. 

Importance    of   the  Anglo-Saxon  Element.  —  The 

Anglo-Saxon  element  is  the  more  important,  for  two 
reasons :  — 

First.   Because  it  is  the  native  part  of  the  language. 
Second.  Because  it  is  the  larger  element  in  common  use 
among  English-speaking  people. 

Numerical   Ratio   of   the   Two  Elements.  —  It  has 

been  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  of  the  words 
in  the  dictionary,  less  than  one-half  are  Saxon,  nearly 
one-half  Latin,  and  the  remainder  Greek  and  miscel- 
laneous in  origin.  In  common  use,  however,  the  num- 
ber of  Saxon  words  is  relatively  greater,  because  almost 
all  the  connecting  words  and  the  articles,  pronouns, 
and  auxiliary  verbs  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  these  are 
used  more  frequently  than  any  other  words.  It  has 
been  found  by  actual  count  that  in  the  writings  of 
about  twenty  good  English  authors,  thirty-two  words 
in   forty  are   of   Saxon  origin.      In    Shakespeare    and 


42  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Milton,  thirty-three  words  in  forty  are  Saxon.  The 
Bible  is  written  in  purer  English  than  any  other  book 
which  we  have,  some  parts  of  it  containing  thirty-nine 
Saxon  words  in  forty. 

How  we  may  know  Saxon  Words.  —  Two  things 
help  us  to  determine  whether  a  word  is  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin  :  first,  the  form  of  the  word ;  second,  the  sense 
in  which  it  is  used.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there 
are  exceptions  to  some  of  the  rules  which  follow.  For 
example,  im  is  a  Saxon  prefix,  but  we  find  it  in  many 
words  of  Latin  origin.  In  all  doubtful  cases,  the  pupil 
should  consult  the  etjnnological  dictionary. 

Words  distinguished  as  Saxon  by  their  Form. 

(a)  Our  Articles  :  a,  an,  the. 

All  Pronouns  :  we,  this,  which,  etc. 

All  Auxiliary  Verbs  :  have,  may,  will. 

All  Adjectives  compared  irregularly  :  good,  bad,  little. 

Nearly   all   Irregular   and   Defective   Verbs :    am,    go, 

ought. 
Nearly  all  Prepositions  and  Conjunctions  :    and,  with, 

by,  as. 

(b)  Nearly  all  words  which,  in  an}^  of  their  forms,  undergo 

vowel  changes. 
Adjectives  with  two   comparisons :    old,  older,  oldest. 

elder,  eldest. 
Adjectives  changed  to  nouns  :  strong,  strength. 
Nouns  changed  to  verbs  :  bliss,  bless. 
Nouns  forming  plurals  by  vowel  change :  foot,  feet. 
Verbs  with  strong  preterites  :  fall,  fell. 
Verbs  changed  by  form  from  intransitive  to  transitive 

rise,  raise. 


THE   ANGLO-SAXON   ELEMENT.  43 

(c)  Most  words  of  one  syllable. 

Parts  of  the  body  :  head,  ear,  skull,  (not  /ace). 

The  senses:  sight,  touch,  smell. 

Infirmities  :  blind,  lame,  deaf. 

The  elements  :  fire,  wind,  frost,  (not  ah'). 

Products :  grass,  corn,  bread. 

Fuel:  coal,  wood,  peat. 

Domestic  animals  :  cat,  dog,  horse. 

(d)  All  words   beginning  with    tvh,  Jen,   sh:    when,   know, 

shine. 
Most  words  beginning  with  ea,  ye,  g!,  th:  each,  yearn, 

glad,  thus. 
Most  words  ending  with  t,  th :  beat,  truth. 

(e)  Most  compound  and  derivative  words,  the  elements  of 

which  exist  and  have  a  meaning  in  English :  horse- 
back, shipwreck,  winsome. 

(/)  Most  words  with  Anglo-Saxon  prefixes  and  suffixes. 


ANGLO-SAXON   PREFIXES. 

1.  a-       =  in,  on,  at  (corruption  of  on^. 

a-bed,  in  bed.   a-board,  on  board,   a-back,  at  the  back. 

2.  be-    =.lnj. 

be-cause,  hy  cause. 

It  is  often  intensive,  as  in  be-stir,  be-deck,  be-come. 

Z.   for-   =  ayainst,  aioay. 

for-bid,  to  bid  ayainst.    for-bear,  to  bear  aicay. 
for-give,  formerly  to  give  aioay. 

4.  fore-  =  before. 

fore-tell,  to  tell  before. 

5.  mis-  denotes  ivrony,  evil. 

mis-take,  to  take  wronyly.    mis-chance,  ill  chance- 


44  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

6.  n-  =  not. 

n-ever,  j^ot  ever, 
n-either,  not  either, 
n-one,  not  one. 

7.  out-       =  beyond. 

out-law,  beyond  the  law. 

8.  over-    =  above,  or  beyond  the  limit. 

over-spread,  to  spread  above 
over-do,  to  do  too  much. 

9.  to-         =  (corruption  of  the). 

to-day,  the  day.     to-morrow,  the  morrow, 

10.  un-        =  not. 

un-truth,  not  the  truth, 
un-honored,  not  honored. 

11.  undei- =  beneath. 

uuder-go,  to  go  beneath. 

12.  -with-    =  against. 

with-stand,  to  stand  against. 


ANGLO-SAXON   SUFFIXES. 

Noun  Suffixes  =one  who  (agent). 

1.  -ar.  li-ar,  one  who  lies. 

2.  -ard.  drunk-ard,  one  icho  drinks. 

3.  -er.  cri-er,  one  who  cries. 

4.  -yer.  law-yer,  one  tcho  understands  law. 

5.  -ster.  youug-ster,  one  icho  is  young. 

Nouu  Suffixes  —  state,  condition,  quality. 

6.  -dom.      king-dom,  state  of  a  king. 

7.  -ship.      friend-ship,  condition  of  friends. 

8.  -hood,     man-hood,  state  of  man. 

.P.   -head,     god-head,  same  as  god-hood. 
10.   -ness.      good-ness,  quality  of  being  good. 


THE  ANGLO-SAXON   ELEMENT.  45 

Noun  Suffixes  =  little.  * 

11.  -ling.  dar-ling,  a  little  dear. 

12.  -kin.  lamb-kin,  a  little  lamb. 

13.  -ie.  dog-gie,  a  little  dog. 

14.  -ock.  liill-ock,  a  little  hill. 

15.  -let.  .stream-let,  a  little  stream.     (From  the  French.) 

16.  -en.  chick-en,  a  little  chick. 

Adjective  Suffixes  =  like^  having  the  quality  of^  relating 
to. 

17.  -ful.         cheer-ful,  having  the  quality  o/ cheer. 

18.  -ly.  kingly,  like  a  king. 

19.  -ish.         boy-ish,  having  the  qualities  of  &  boy. 

Engl-ish,  originating  with  the  Angles. 

20.  -en.  wood-en,  having  qualities  ofvfood. 

21.  -ern.         north-ern,  relating  to  the  north. 

22.  -y.  gloom-y,  having  the  qualities  o/ gloom. 

23.  -like.       god-like,  like  a  god. 

Miscellaneous  Suffixes. 

24.  -less     =  loss,  hope-less,  with  loss  of  hope. 

25.  -some,     lone-some,  hand-some. 

26.  -teen  =  ten.     four-teen,  four  and  ten. 

27.  -ty  (from  tig)  -■  decade,     for-ty,  four  times  ten. 

28.  -ward  =  towards,     east-ward,  toioards  the  east. 

29.  -wise  =  manner,     like-wise,  in  like  manner. 

30.  -en.  Forms  verbs  from  adjectives,     weak,  weaken. 

Plural  nouns,     ox-en,  childr-en. 

Words  distinguished  as   Saxon  by  their  Use  and 
Meaning. 

(a)  Most  of  the  words  which  we  early  learn  to  use,  and 
which  are  most  closely  associated  with  the  pleasant 
memories  of  childhood  and  home.  Such  words  have 
more  power  over  us  than  have  the  high-sounding  words 
which  we  learn  later  in  life.  Perhaps  this  is  the  reason 
why  we  find  a  simple  Saxon  style  so  pleasing. 


46  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

Among  the  classes  of  Saxon  words  which  we  learn 
in  childhood  are  the  following  :  — 

1.  Names  of  our  earliest  and  dearest  associations. 

Ex.  home,  friends,  father,  mother,  husband,  wife, 
son,  daughter,  brother,  sister,  fireside,  hearth. 

2.  Words  expressing  our  strongest  natural  feelings. 

Ex.  gladness  {not  joy),  sorrow  (not  grief),  tears, 
smiles,  blushes,  laughing,  weeping,  sighing,  groaning, 
love,  hate  (not  anger) ,  fear,  pride,  mirth. 

So  also  hungry,  thirsty,  tired,  sleepy,  lonesome, 
homesick,  naughty. 

3.  Names  of  common  things,  such  as  a  child  early  notices 

and  learns  to  talk  about. 

Ex.  sun,  moon,  star,  sky,  cloud,  earth,  water. 

Animals  :  horse,  cow,  dog,  cat,  calf,  pig  {beef,  veal, 
and  pork  are  Norman  terms) . 

Objects  in  the  plant  world  :  tree,  bush,  grass  (not 
flower  or  vine) . 

Objects  in  the  mineral  world  :  sand,  salt,  iron,  gold, 
stone  (not  rock) . 

Features  of  sceuerj- :  hill,  woods,  stream,  land,  sea 
(not  mountain  or  valley) . 

Natural  divisions  of  time,  etc.  :  day,  night,  morn- 
ing, evening,  noon,  midnight,  sunset,  sunrise,  twilight, 
light,  darkness. 

Kinds  of  weather,  etc.  :  cold,  heat,  wet,  dry,  wind, 
frost,  hail,  rain,  sleet,  snow,  thunder,  lightning,  storm. 

Parts  of  the  body :  hand,  arm,  head,  leg,  eye,  ear, 
foot,  nose  (not /ace). 

(6)  Most  of  our  particular  terms.  The  general  terms  are 
mainly  from  the  Latin,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing examples  :  — 


THE   ANGLO-SAXON   ELEJIENT.  47 

Latin.  Saxon. 

motion.  slide,  creep,  walk,  fly,  swim,  etc. 

color.  white,  blue,  red,  green,  yellow,  etc. 
sound.  buzz,  s^Deak,  whistle,  roar,  etc. 

animal.  dog,  man,  sheep,  wolf,  etc. 

iin  b(»r  ^  ^^^  ^^^  cardinal  numbers  to  a  million. 
I  all  the  ordinal  numbers  except  second. 

This  explains  why  the  Saxoii  style  is  more  vivid  and  pic- 
turesque, and  therefore  more  pleasing  than  a  style  which 
abounds  in  words  of  classic  origin. 

(c)  Most  of  the  words  used  in  the  common  affairs  of  every- 
day life.  The  words  which  we  hear  in  the  home,  on 
the  street,  in  the  shops  and  markets,  and  on  the  farm 
are,  to  a  great  extent,  Saxon  words. 

Ex.  sell,  buy,  cheap,  deai',  high,  low,  weight  (not 
measure),  work,  grind,  reap,  sow,  baker,  shoemaker, 
worth,  want,  wedge,  spring,  scrape,  sweep,  wash,  rich, 
poor,  business,  wages  (not  salary). 

Caution :  Notice  that  many  such  words  are  not  of 
Saxon  origin.  For  example,  money.  In  all  doubtful 
cases  consult  the  dictionary. 

(jd)  Many  colloquialisms  ;  that  is,  words  which  are  used  in 
familiar  conversation,  but  not  often  in  careful  writing. 
An  excited  talker  does  not  stop  to  choose  the  most 
elegant  word.  When  a  man  is  angry,  he  "  talks  plain 
English,"  and  uses  such  words  as  lazy,  shiftless,  sly, 
gawhy,  shabby,  trash,  sham. 

(e)  Most  words  in  our  proverbs  and  maxims. 

These  "  old  sayings,"  or  '•  household  words,"  as  the}' 
are  sometimes  called,  owe  much  of  their  force  to  their 
simple  Saxon  style. 

Ex.  "  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines."  "  A  bird  in 
the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush."  "  No  pains,  no 
gains."     "  Look  before  you  leap." 


48 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


EXEEOISE  I. 

1.  Make  adjectives  from  the  following  nouns,  by  using  suf- 
fixes meaning  like,  having  the  quality  of,  or  relatinc) 
to:  man,  storm,  fear,  snow,  east,  noise. 

2  What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  between  earthly  and 
earthen?  Between  childish  and  childlike?  Between 
sixteen  and  sixtj'  ? 

3.  Show  the  force  of  the  prefixes  in  the  following  words : 

for-bid,  under-go,  with-stand,  out-law,  fore-tell,  mis- 
take, over-do,  un-truth,  a-board,  to-day,  n-either. 

4.  Show  the  force  of  the  suffixes  in  the  following  words : 

west-ward,  lad-die,  free-dom,  fir-kin,  ox-en,  fear-less, 
wait-er,  good-ness,  kin-ship. 

EXERCISE  II. 

Tell  how  you  know  that  each  of  the  following  words  is 
Saxon : — 


sheep 

liar 

old 

gosling 

smile 

home 

handsome 

mouse 

sight 

gawky 

white 

likewise 

deaf 

skull 

darling 

roar 

somewhat 

yearn 

first 

business 

walk 

boyish 

truth 

bread 

buy 

sleepy 

shine 

lazy 

naughty 

godlike 

stream 

grass 

wooden 

salt 

manhood 

head 

mirth 

cheerful 

twilight 

hopeless 

children 

shall 

sweetness 

rain 

strengthen 

kingdom 

ought 

friendship 
EXERCISE 

sing 
III. 

shipwreck 

Which  of  the  words  in  the  following  extracts  are  not  of 


Saxon  origin  ? 


Give  rules  for  the  Saxon  words. 


1.    For  the  angel  of  death  spread  his  wings  on  the  blast, 
And  breathed  in  the  face  of  the  foe  as  he  pass'd, 


THE  ANGLO-SAXON   ELEMENT.  49 

And  the  eyes  of  the  sleepers  waxed  deadly  and  chill, 
And  their  hearts  but  once  heaved,  and  for  ever  grew  still. 
And  there  lay  the  steed  with  his  nostrils  all  wide, 
But  thro'  them  there  rolled  not  the  breath  of  his  pride  ; 
And  the  foam  of  his  gasping  lay  white  on  the  turf, 
And  cold  as  the  spray  of  the  rock-beating  surf.       Byron. 

2.    A  little  flower  so  lowly  grew, 
So  lonel}'  was  it  left, 
That  heaven  looked  like  au  eye  of  blue, 
Down  in  its  rocky  cleft. 

What  could  the  little  flower  do, 
In  sucli  a  darksome  place. 
But  try  to  reach  that  eye  of  blue 
And  cUmb  to  kiss  heaven's  face  ? 

And  there's  no  life  so  lone  and  low 

But  strength  may  still  be  given, 

From  narrowest  lot  on  earth  to  grow 

The  straighter  up  to  heaven.  Gerald  Massey. 

EXEEOISE  IV. 

Write  a  paragraph  of  ten  lines,  composed  largely  of  Saxon 
words,  selecting  one  of  the  following  subjects  :  — 

How  We  Learn  to  Talk.  My  Little  Brother. 

What  the  Wind  Sang.  Boys. 

The  Sad  Story  of  a  Shipwreck. 

The  following  story,  written  by  a  pupil,  is  composed  almost 
entirely  of  Saxon  words  :  — 

Bertie  and  the  Butterflies. 

Once  upon  a  time  there  lived  a  little  five-year-old  boy 
named  Bertie.  On  a  nice  afternoon  in  June  he  lay  on  his 
back  in  some  tall  grass  that  grew  in  the  back-yard,  with  his 


50  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

hands  behind  nis  back,  and  his  eyes  fixed  on  the  blue  sky 
above  him. 

He  was  very  drowsy  and  just  about  to  go  to  sleep,  when 
a  little  voice  that  sounded  veiy  indistinct  said,  "Bertie, 
Bertie  !  "  At  first  he  would  not  look  around,  for  he  thouglit 
it  was  only  liis  imagination  ;  but  when  the  voice  called  again, 
he  turned  his  head  and  beheld  the  funniest  sight  you  ever 
thought  of.  Right  beside  him  was  a  whole  mass  of  butter- 
flies, poised  in  the  air,  with  the  most  showy  wings  Bertie 
had  ever  seen.  But  this  was  not  the  queerest  part ;  for 
these  butterflies,  instead  of  having  little  black  bodies  like 
all  their  kindred,  were  tiny  little  fays  dressed  in  tight  suits 
of  black  spotted  with  yellow.  And  what  was  queerer  still, 
they  had  little  black  horns  like  a  common  butterfly's.  And 
they  were  staring  at  Bertie  in  the  wisest  way,  with  their 
little  black  eyes  blinliing  and  winking  at  him  as  if  the}'  knew 
more  about  him  than  he  did  himself. 

They  looked  so  fuun}-  that  Bertie  laughed  aloud  and 
clapped  his  dimpled  hands  so  hard  that  the  butterflies  all 
gave  a  little  flap  of  their  wings  and  looked  so  very  much 
frightened  that  Bertie  stopped  laughing. 

Then  there  came  a  voice  out  of  the  mass  of  butterflies  that 
said,  "  Bertie,  Bertie,  you  must  not  do  that,  or  we  shall  fly 
away."  Bertie  turned  his  face  awa}'  from  them,  and  look- 
ing up  at  the  sky,  watched  the  clouds.  But  pretty  soon  he 
got  tired  of  this  and  thought  he  must  look  again  at  the  fays, 
whether  it  made  him  laugh  or  not ;  and  so  he  did  :  but  they 
all  looked  so  solemn  that  he  exclaimed,  "My  doodness  ! 
why  don't  'oo  say  somefiu'  ? "  And  this  time  they  all  flew 
away,  leaving  Bertie  staring  at  the  place  where  they  had 
been ;  he  had  to  rub  his  eyes  to  be  sure  they  had  gone, 
because  they  went  away  so  quickly.  But  when  he  told  his 
mother,  she  said  she  guessed  he  had  been  asleep,  and  that 
was  why  he  rubbed  his  eves. 


THE  CLASSICAL  ELEMENT.  51 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE    CLASSICAL   ELEMENT. 

X  LATIN   PREFIXES. 

1.   a-,  ab-,  abs-,  =  from  or  moay. 

ab-solve,  to  set  free  from.  a-vert,  to  turn  from. 

ab-duct,  to  lead  away.  abs-tract,  to  draw  from. 


ad-  =  to. 

Variations :  a-,  ac-,  af-,  ag-,  al-,  an-,  ap-,  ar-,  as-,  at-,  the 
last  letter  being  usually  changed  into  the  first  letter  of  the 
word  to  which  it  is  prefixed.  This  change  is  for  the  sake 
of  euphony. 

ad-apt,  to  fit  to.  al-lude,  to  refer  to. 

a-gree,  to  be  pleasing  to.  an-nex,  to  tie  to. 

ac-cede,  to  yield  to.  ap-pend,  to  hang  to. 

af-fix,  to  fix  to.  ar-rive,  to  come  to. 

ag-grieve,  to  give  pain  to.  as-sist,  to  give  help  to. 

at-tract,  to  draw  to. 


con-  =  itiiih  or     gether. 

Variations :  co-,  cog-,  col-,  com-,  cor-. 
con-nect,  to  fasten  together.       col-lapse,  to  fall  together. 
co-here,  to  stick  together.  com-merce,  to  trade  with  others, 

cog-nate,  born  together.  cor-relative,  relative  with. 


dis-  =  asunder,  apart,  opposite  of 

Variations :  di-,  dif-. 

dis-pel,  to  drive  asunder.  di-vert,  to  turn  apart. 

dis-please,  opposite  of  please,     dif-fer,  to  be  apart. 

se-  =  apart.        se-cede,  to  go  apart. 


62  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

6.  in-  =  in,  into,  or  on.     (In  nouns  and  verbs.) 

Variations  :  il-,  im-,  ir-. 
in-clude,  to  shut  in.  im-bibe,  to  drink  in. 

il-luminate,  to  throw  light  on.   ir-rigate,  to  pour  water  on. 
im-migrate,  to  move  into  a  country. 

7.  intra-  =  within.  intra-tropical,  within  the  tropics. 

8.  intro-  =  within  or  into.       intro-spection,  a  looking  within. 

iutro-duce,  to  lead  into. 


9.   ex-  =  out  or  from. 

Variations  :  e-,  ec-,  ef-. 
ex-clude,  to  shut  out.  ec-centric,  from  the  centre, 

e-vade,  to  get  away /rom.  ef-flux,  a  flowing  out. 


10.  contra-  =  against. 

Variations :  contro-,  counter-, 
contra-diet,  to  speak  against,     contro-vert,  to  turn  against. 
counter-act,  to  act  against. 

11.  ob-  =  against  or  oiit. 

Variations :  o-,  oc-,  of-,  op-. 

ob-ject,  to  throw  against.  oc-cur,  to  run  against. 

o-mit,  to  leave  out.  of-fend,  to  strike  against. 

op-pose,  to  act  against. 


12.  non-  =  not.  non-essential,  not  essential. 

13.  in-  =  not.     (In  adjectives  and  nouns.) 

Variations  :  ig-,  il-,  im-,  ir-. 

in-active,  not  active.  il-legal,  7iot  legal, 

ig-noble,  not  noble.  im-mortal,  not  mortal, 

ir-regular,  not  regular. 


14.   sub-  =  under  or  after. 

Variations :  sue-,  suf-,  sug-,  sum-,  sup-,  sus-. 

sub-scribe,  to  write  under.  suc-ceed,  to  follow  after. 

sub-sequent,  following  after,      suf-fix,  something  fixed  after. 


THE   CLASSICAL   ELEMENT. 


53 


sug-gest,  to  bring  to  mind         snm-mon,  to  hint  from  under. 
from  under.  sup-press,  to  press  under. 

sus-taiu,  to  hold  from  under. 

15.  subter-  =  under.  subter-fuge,  a  flying  under. 

16.  post-      =  after.  post-mortem,  afier  death. 


17.   ante-      =  before. 
IS.    pre-        =  before. 


aute-cedent,  going  before. 
pre-fix,  to  fix  before. 


19.   pro-        =  for  or  forward. 


pro-noun,  for  a  noun, 
pro-gress,  to  move  forward. 


20.  re-  =  back  or  anew. 

21.  retro-     =  backward. 


re-pel,  to  drive  back. 
retro-spect,  a  looking  backward. 


22.  extra- 

23.  preter- 

24.  trans- 

25.  ultra- 


=  beyond.  extra-ordinary,  beyond  ordinary. 

=  beyond.  preter-natm-al,  beyond  nature. 

=  beyond  or  through,     trans-atlantic,  beyond  the 

Atlantic, 
trans-fix,  to  pierce  through. 

—  beyond  or  extremely,  ultra-marine,  beyond  the  sea. 

ultra-liberal,  extremely  liberal. 


26.   per-         =  through. 


per-spire,  to  breathe  through. 


27.  bi-  =  two. 

28.  circum-  —  around. 

29.  inter-  =  between. 

30.  juxta-  =  7iear. 

31.  sine-  =  icithout. 

32.  super-  —  over. 

33.  de-  =  doivn  or  off. 


bi-ped,  too-footed. 

circum-navigate,  to  sail  around. 

inter-cede,  to  go  between. 

juxta-position,  a  placing  near. 

sine-cure,  icithout  care. 

super-intend,  to  have  care  over. 

de-pose,  to  put  down. 
de-fer,  to  put  off. 


54 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


Noun  Siiffi: 

1. 

-an. 

2, 

-ant. 

3. 

-ent. 

4. 

-ary. 

5. 

-ate. 

6. 

-eer. 

7. 

-ier. 

8. 

-ist. 

9. 

-or. 

10. 

-ice. 

11. 

-ment. 

12. 

-mony 

13. 

-ure. 

LATIN   SUFFIXES. 

Siiflflxes  =  one  who  (agent)  ;  that  ivhieh. 
artis-aii,  one  who  works  at  a  trade, 
assist-ant,  one  loJio  assists, 
stud-ent,  one  who  studies, 
lapid-ary  one  tcho  cuts  precious  stones, 
advoc-ate  one  loho  pleads  a  cause, 
auction-eer,  one  ivho  holds  an  auction, 
cash-ier,  07ie  icho  has  charge  of  the  cash, 
botan-ist,  one  who  studies  botany.     [Orig.  Greek.] 
act-or,  one  tvho  acts, 
serv-ice,  that  tchich  serves, 
induce-nient,  that  which  leads, 
testi-mony,  that  which  is  testified, 
creat-ure,  that  which  is  created. 

Noun  Suffixes  =  one  who  is  (recipient)  ;  that  which  is. 

14.  -ate.  deleg-ate,  one  tvho  is  sent  by  others. 

15.  -ite.  favor-ite,  one  who  is  favored. 

16.  -ee.  trust-ee,  one  who  is  trusted. 

17.  -ive.  capt-ive,  one  who  is  taken. 

Noun  Suffixes  =  state  ;  condition  ;  quality  ;  act. 

18.  -ance.        abund-ance,  condition  of  abounding. 

19.  -ence.         prud-ence,  quality  of  being  prudent, 
brilli-ancy,  quality  of  brightness, 
despond-ency,  state  of  being  despondent, 
marri-age,  act  of  marrying, 
accur-acy,  quality  of  being  acciu-ate. 
secui--ity,  state  of  being  seciu-e. 
liber-ty,  state  of  being  free, 
evas-ion,  act  of  evading. 

hero-ism,  state  of  being  a  hero.    [Originally  Greek.] 
excite-ment,  state  of  being  excited, 
matri-mony,  state  of  marriage, 
servi-tude,  condition  of  slaving. 

-ure.  depart-ure,  act  of  leaving. 


20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 


-ancy. 

-ency. 

-age. 

-acy. 

-ity. 

-ty. 

-ion. 

-ism. 

-ment. 

-mony. 

-tude. 


THE   CLASSICAL  ELEMENT.  55 

Noun  Suffixes  ^- place  where. 

32.   -ary.  gran-ary,  a,  place  where  grain  is  kept. 

.33.   -ory.  fact-ory,  a  place  lohere  things  are  made. 

34.  -ery.  cemet-ery,  a  place  where  the  dead  sleep. 

Noun  Suffixes  =  m^?^w^g  (diminutives). 

35.  -cle.  parti-cle,  a  minute  pai't. 
animal-cule,  a  minute  animal, 
spher-ule,  a  minute  sphere. 

Adjective  Suffixes  =  lihe  ;  being  ;  relatiyig  to. 

cardi-ac,  relating  to  the  heart, 
leg-al,  relating  to  the  law. 
hum-an,  relating  to  mankind, 
circul-ar,  like  a  circle, 
milit-ary,  relating  to  the  army, 
equival-ent,  being  equal, 
hero-ic,  like  a  hero, 
histor-ical,  relatinq  in  history, 
puer-ile,  like  a  boy. 
luc-id,  being  clear, 
femin-ine,  relating  to  a  woman. 
preparat-ory,  relating  to  preparation. 

Adjective  Suffixes  =  «5oMwJm^  in  ;  having  the  quality  of. 

passion-ate,  having  the  quality  0/ passion, 
verb-ose,  abounding  in  words, 
popnl-ous,  abounding  in  people, 
op-ulent,  abounding  in  wealth, 
sapon-aceous,  having  the  qualities  of  soa'p. 
ver-acious,  having  the  qualities  0/ truth. 

Adjective  Suffixes  =  that  mag  be. 

19.  -able.  mov-able,  that  may  be  moved. 

20.  -ible.  leg-ible,  that  may  be  read. 

21.  -ble.  solu-ble,  that  may  be  dissolved. 

22.  -ile,  doc-ile,  that  may  be  taught. 


36. 

-cule. 

37. 

-ule. 

djt 

1. 

active  S 
-ac. 

0 

-al. 

3. 

-an. 

4. 

-ar. 

5. 

-ary. 

6. 

-ent. 

7. 

-ic. 

"8. 

-ical. 

9. 

-ile. 

10. 

-id. 

11. 

-ine. 

12. 

-ory. 

dj« 

13. 

ictive  S 
-ate. 

14. 

-ose. 

15. 

-ous. 

16. 

-ulent. 

17. 

-aceous, 

18. 

-acious. 

56  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

Adjective  SuflSxes  =  having  the  jjower  of. 

23.  -ive.         negat-ive,  having  the  poiver  of  denying. 

Adjective  Suffixes  =  causing  or  producing. 

24.  -ferous.   coni-ferous,  producing  cones. 

25.  -fie.  sopori-fic,  causing  sleep. 

Adjective  Suffixes  =  becoming. 

26.  -escent.  conval-escent,  becoming  well. 

Verb  Suffixes  =  to  make  ;  to  re7ider  ;  to  perform  an  act. 

1.  -ate.         navig-ate,  ^oper/br»i  ?/ie  ac<  o/ sailing. 

2.  -fy.  forti-fy,  to  make  strong. 

3.  -ise.  critic-ise,  to  perform  the  work  of  a  critic.  >  From  the 

4.  -ize.         fertil-ize,  to  render  fertile.  >     Greek. 


EXEEOISE  ON  THE  CLASSICAL  ELEMENT. 

1.  From  the  following  words,  make  nouns  denoting  state, 

condition,    quality,    or   act,    giving   the   definition   of 
each, 
parent,  private,  despot,  judge,  moist,  repent,  prompt  («), 
docile, 

2.  From  the  following  words  make  nouns  denoting  place 

where.     Define  each, 
arm,  bird  {avis),  bee  {apis),  observe,  penitent. 

3.  Write  the  diminutives  of  the  following  words.     Define 

each, 
globe,  skin  {cutis),  root  {radix),  work-bag  {rete,  a  net), 
mass  {moles). 

4.  From  the   following  words  make   nouns  denoting   the 

agent  {one  icho  or  that  which).     Define  each, 
brigade,  music,  credit,  flower  (/?o/--},  account,  command, 
mission. 


THE   CLASSICAL   ELEMENT.  57 

5.  From   the   following  words   make   adjectives  denoting 

relating  to,  like  or  being.     Define  each, 
nation,  elegy,  moment,  poet,  water    {aqua),  splendor, 
dog  (canis),  infant,  promise,  sun  (sol),  Rome. 

6.  From   the   following  words   make   adjectives  denoting 

abounding  in,  or  having  the  quality  of.     Define  each, 
affection,     courage,     suspicion,     fraud,     malice,     leaf 
(folium) . 

7.  Define  the  following  words  so  as  to  show  the  force  of 

the  prefixes  and  suffixes, 
intangible,  impalpable,  illegible,  feasible,  inaudible,  visi- 
ble, laudable,  inexplicable,  perceptible,  inaccessible, 
irrevocable,  unpardonable. 

8.  From  the  following  words  make  verbs  denoting  to  make, 

render,  or  perform  the  act  of.     Define  each, 
solid,  number,  agony,  terror,  memory. 

9.  Define  the  following  words  so  as  to  show  the  force  of 

the  prefixes  and  suffixes, 
recapitulate,  incarcerate,  refrigerate,  circumscribe,  coin- 
cidence,  insanity,    education    (e-duc-ate-ion) ,   trans- 
portation. 

10.  Show,  from  the  etymology,  the  difference  in  meaning 
between  emigrate  and  immigrate  ;  exclude,  include, 
conclude  ;  repel,  expel,  impel,  dispel ;  secede,  inter- 
cede, recede,  pi"ecede ;  attract,  distract,  subtract,  ex- 
tract, retract,  protract,  detract ;  ante-meridian,  post- 
meridian ;  contradict,  interdict,  predict,  predicate. 


58  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

EXEEOISE. 

Words  Derived  from  Latin  Numerals. 

Define  each  word,  so  as  to  show  that  it  contains  the  idea 
of  the  number. 

1,  unus.  unit,  union,  unite,  uniform,  universe,  uni- 

corn, unique,  university.  Unitarian. 

2,  duo.  dual,  duel,  duplex,  duplicate,  duplicity, 
bis,  bi(<wjce).  billion,    bisect,    bivalve,    biscuit,   binomial, 

biennial,  bigamist,  bi-dentate. 

3,  tres.  treble,  trefoil. 

tri  (thrice),  triangle,  tribe,  trice,  triple,  tri-color,  trident, 
trinity,  trinomial,  triplet,  trio,  trisect, 
tripod,  triennial. 

4,  quatuor.         quarto,    quart,    quartette,    quadrille,    quad- 

ruped,   quadrilateral,    quadrillion,    quad- 
ruple, quarter. 

5,  quinque.         quintette,    quintillion,    quintuple,    quinque- 

reme,  quinque-foliate,  quintessence. 

6,  sex.  sextant,  sextillion,  sextuple,  sexennial. 

7,  septem.  septennial,  septillion,  septisy liable,  Septem- 

ber. 

8,  octo.  octave,  octillion,  octennial,  October. 

9,  uovem.  novennial,  November. 

10,  decern.  decennial,  decimeter,  decimal,  decimate,  De- 

cember. 

12,  duodecimo,  duodecimal,  duodecimo  (volume). 

100,  centum.  cent,  century,  centurion,  centigram,  centen- 

nial,   centenarian,    centigrade,    centiped, 
percentage. 
1000,  mille.  million,  millennium,  millimeter,  mUleped. 

First,  primus.  prime,   primary,   primal,  primeval,  primer, 

primitive. 

Second,  secundus.       second,  secondary. 


THE   CLASSICAL   ELEMENT.  59 

EXERCISE. 
English  Words  Derived  from  Latin  Roots. 
Explain  the  etymology  of  each. 

1.  caput-,  the  head. 

cap,  cape   (geography),  capital,   captain,   chapter,  chaplet, 
chieftain,  decapitate,  precipitate. 

2.  claiido,  clausum-,  to  shut,  to  close,  finish. 

clause,  close,   closet,  disclose,   include,  exclude,   seclusion, 
cloister,  recluse. 

3.  duco,  ductum-,  to  lead,  to  draw. 

aqueduct,  ductile,  conduce,  induce,  conduit,  educate. 

4.  fero,  latum-,  to  bear,  to  carry,  to  hring. 

collate,  confer,  differ,  ferry,  fertile,  oblation,  refer,  relate, 
superlative,  transfer,  legislator. 

5.  gradus-,  a  step, 

gradior,  gressus-,  to  step,  to  go. 

grade,  gradual,  graduate,  congress,  degrade,  degree,  digress, 
ingredient,  transgress. 

6.  mitto,  missutn-,  to  send. 

admit,  committee,  dismiss,  intermit,  mission,  remittance, 
promise,  message. 

7.  pes,  -pedis-,  foot. 

biped,  pedal,  expedite,  impediment,  centiped. 

8.  plico-,  to  bend,  to  fold,  to  knit. 

plecto,  plexum-,  to  twine,  to  weave,  to  knit. 

apply,  duplicate,  complex,  explicit,  implicit,  pliant,  reply, 
supplicate,  triple. 

9.  pono,  positum-,  to  put,  to  place,  to  lay. 

post,  postage,  repose,  depose,  impose,  composure,  deposit, 
expose,  position. 

10.   specie,  spectum-,  to  see,  to  look. 

despise,   circumspect,  respite,  special,  suspicion,   spectacle, 
spectre,  species,  specimen. 


60 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


PRINCIPAL   GREEK   PREFIXES. 


1. 

a-,  an- 

without;  not. 

2. 

amphi- 

around;  both. 

3. 

ana- 

hack;  throughout 

4. 

anti-,  ant- 

against;  opposite 

5. 

cata-,  cat- 

doivn  ;  against. 

6. 

dia- 

through;  across. 

7. 

dis-,  di- 

tioo  ;  double. 

8. 

dys- 

ill. 

9. 

ec- 

out  of. 

10. 

en-,  em- 

in  ;  on. 

n. 

epi-,  ep- 

upon  ;  for. 

12. 

eu-,  ev- 

well;  good. 

13. 

hemi- 

half. 

14. 

hyper-, 

over;  beyond. 

15. 

hypo- 

under. 

16. 

meta-,  met- 

beyond;  transfen 

17. 

para-,  par- 

by  the  side  of. 

18. 

peri- 

around. 

19. 

pro- 

before. 

20. 

syn-,  sy-, 
syl-,  sym- 

>  with  ;  together. 

a-pathy,  an-omalous. 
(  amphi-theater, 
(  amphi-bious. 

ana-logy,  ana-lysis. 

anti-pathy,  ant-arctic. 

cata-logue,  cat-arrh. 

dia-meter,  dia-logue. 

dis-syllable,  di-lemnia. 

dys-pepsia. 

ec-lectic. 

en-ergy,  em-phasis. 

epi-dermis,  ep-hemeral. 

eu-phonic,  ev-angel. 

hemi-sphere. 
(  hyper-critical, 
(  hyper-borean. 

hypo-thesis. 
e.  meta-physics,  met-onym 

para-site,  par-helion. 

peri-meter. 

pro-gramme. 
(  syn-thesis,  sy-stem. 
\  syl-lable,  sym-pathy. 


EXEECISE. 

Words  Derived  from  Greek  Words  of  Number. 

Define  each  word  so  as  to  show  that  it  contains  the  idea  of 
the  number. 

1,  mono  (single),     monosyllable,  monologue,  monotony,  mon- 

archy, monogram,  monolith,  monomial,  monopoly,  mono- 
petalous. 

2,  deuteros  (second).     Deuteronomy. 

dis,  di  (twice),     dissyllable,  diarchy,  dilemma,  diphthong, 
diploma. 


THE   CLASSICAL   ELEMENT.  61 

3,  tTis  (thrice),    tripod,  trialogue,.  triarchy,  trigonometry,  tri- 
glyph,  trisyllable. 

5,  pente.  pentagon,  pentateuch,  pentecost,  pentameter. 

6,  hex.  hexagon,  hexameter. 

7,  hepta.  heptagon,  heptarchy. 

8,  octo.  octagon. 

10,  deka.  decagon,  decagram,  decalogue. 

12,  dodeka.  dodecagon. 

100.  hekaton.        hectometer,  hektograph. 
10000.  myria.  myriad,  myriameter. 

poly  (many),  polygon,  polysyllable,  polygamy,  polyglot, 
Polynesia,  polyp,  polynomial. 

EXEEOISE. 
English  "Words  Derived  from  Greek  Roots. 
Explain  the  etymology  of  each  word. 

1.  aster-,  astron-,  a  star. 

astronomy,  asterisk,  astrology. 

2.  chronos-,  time. 

chronic,  chronology,  chronicle,  anachronism,  chronometer. 

3.  ge-,  the  earth. 

geology,  geography,  geometry. 

4.  gramma-,  a  letter. 

grammar,  gramm'atical,  anagram,  diagram,  epigram,  mono- 
gram, telegram,  programme." 

5.  graphein-,  to  write.  , 

graphic,  autograph,  biography,  photograph,  caligraph,  geog- 
raphy, lithograph,  orthography,  phonograph,"  stenograph, 
telegraph,  topography. 

6.  hudor-,  water.  '- 

hydra'  hydrant,  hydraulic,  hydrogen,  hydropathy,  hj'dro- 
phobia,  hydrostatics.' 


62 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


7.  logos-,  speech,  description,  reason,  science. 

logic,  analogy,  catalogue,  doxology,  etymology,  mythology, 
mineralogy. " 

8.  metron-,  a  measure. 

meter,  barometer,  thermometer,  perimeter,  symmetry. 

9.  phone-,  a  sound.  ^. 

euphony,  phonograph,  telephone,  phonic,  symphony. 
10.   polls-,  a  city. 

police,  policy,  i^olitics,  metropolis,  necropolis,  cosmopolitan, 
Constantinople. 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES 

ON   THE    SAXON    AND    CLASSICAL    ELEMENTS. 

Exercise  I. 
Give  Saxon  equivalents  for  the  following  classical  terms  :  — 


cohere 

multitude 

veracity 

injure 

exclude 

excite 

precipitate 

crystalline 

object  (noun) 

constellation 

fraternal 

indicate 

object  (verb) 

promote 

sustain 

creation 

language 

nocturnal 

preservation 

endeavor 

puerile 

diurnal 

spectacle 

fortitude 

verbosity 

elevate 

dominate 

sanctuary 

extravagant 

aqueous 

contention 

omnipotent 

stupendous 

saccharine 

inexpensive 

diffuse 

magnitude 

lacteal 

diminutive 

mysterious 

expansive 

saline 

assassinate 

confidence 

hilarious 

carnivorous 

invisible 

beneficent 

eternal 

luminary 

Exercise  II. 

From  the  following  extracts,  select  all  the  words  of  classi- 
cal origin.     Re-write  each  paragraph  so  as  to  express  the 
same  thought,  but  mainly  in  Saxon  words. 
1.        Let  it  be   proclaimed  in  every  school   that  there  are 
original,  immutable,  and  indestructible  maxims  of  moral 


THE   CLASSICAL   ELEMENT.  63 

rectitude,  —  great  lights  in  the  firmament  of  the  soul, — 
which  no  circumstances  can  affect,  no  sophistry  obliterate. 
That  to  this  eternal  standard  every  individual  of  the  race 
is  bound  to  conform,  and  that  by  it  the  conduct  of  every 
man  shall  be  adjudged.  Let  it  be  proclaimed  that  dis- 
honesty, fraud,  and  falsehood  are  as  despicable  and  crim- 
inal in  the  most  exalted  stations  as  in  the  most  obscure, 
in  politics  as  in  business.  Bateman. 

2.  I  have  spoken  heretofore  with  some  levity  of  the  con- 
trast that  exists  between  the  English  and  French  char- 
acter ;  but  it  deserves  more  serious  consideration.  They 
are  the  two  great  nations  of  modern  times  most  diametri- 
cally opposed,  and  most  w^orthy  of  each  other's  rivalry ; 
essentially  distinct  in  their  characters,  excelling  in  oppo- 
site qualities,  and  reflecting  lustre  on  each  other  by  their 
very  opposition.  In  nothing  is  this  contrast  more  strik- 
ingly evinced  than  in  their  military  conduct.  Irving. 

Exercise  III. 

1.  "Write  in  classical  style  one  of  the  old  nursery  rhymes, 
such  as  "  Jack  and  Gili,"  "  Old  Mother  Hubbard,"  "  Little 
Drops  of  Water,"  or  "  Twinkle,  Twinkle,  Little  Star." 

2.  Reproduce  in  this  way  any  short  anecdote. 

The  following  classical  versions,  written  by  pupils,  will 
suggest  how  the  simple  story  may  be  clothed  in  a  foreign 
dress :  — 

Saxon.  — There  was  a  little  girl. 

And  she  had  a  little  curl 

That  hung  right  down  on  her  forehead ; 

And  when  she  was  good 

She  was  very,  very  good  ; 

But  when  she  was  bad,  she  was  horrid. 


64  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Classical.  — At  a  recent  period  in  the  annals  of  the  human 
family,  there  existed  a  diminutive  feminine  specimen  of  hu- 
manity, whose  most  conspicuous  personal  decoration  was  a 
capillary  spiral  appendage  of  minute  dimensions.  This  de- 
scended perpendicularly  upon  her  alabaster  brow. 

At  intervals  when  she  was  amiably  disposed,  she  produced 
upon  all  beholders  the  impression  of  being  excessively  agi'ee- 
able  ;  but  when  she  abandoned  herself  to  the  natural  inclina- 
tions of  an  unregenerate  spirit,  she  exhibited  such  symptoms 
of  depravity  that  her  deportment  became  positively  execrable. 

Saxon.  — A  little  boy  once  said  to  his  mother,  "  Ma,  if  a 
bear  should  eat  me  up,  where  would  my  soul  go?" 

She  replied,  "Your  soul  would  go  to  Heaven,  my  son." 
He  thought  a  minute,  and  then  suddenly  broke  out,  "  If  the 
bear  should  take  to  runnin',  I'd  have  a  good  ride  anyhow." 

Classical.  —  A  diminutive  specimen  of  the  human  race 
propounded  the  following  query  to  his  maternal  ancestor : 
"Mamma,  if  a  carnivorous  individual  should  devour  me, 
whither  would  that  ethereal  portion  of  my  human  organiza- 
tion rejoicing  in  the  euphonious  appellation  soul  depart?" 

Mamma  replied  to  her  lineal  descendant :  "It  would  soar 
to  the  celestial  regions." 

The  youth  cogitated  for  several  consecutive  moments,  and 
then  ejaculated,  "  If  the  animal  should  be  seized  with  an 
imaccountable  tendency  to  propel  himself  to  a  destination 
far  remote,  I  should  experience  the  delicious  sensation  of 
obtaining  a  glorious  journey  without  being  obliged  to  employ 
m}"  powers  of  locomotion." 


I 


THE   CLASSICAL   ELEMENT.  65 

Exercise  IV. 

The  following  sonnet,  made  up  of  words  of  one  syllable, 
proves  that  long  words  are  not  always  necessary  to  strength 
of  style. 

Select  the  words  which  are  not  of  Saxon  origin. 

Think  not  that  strength  lies  in  the  big  round  word, 

Or  that  the  brief  and  plain  must  needs  be  weak. 

To  whom  can  this  be  true  who  once  has  heard 

The  cry  for  help,  the  tongue  that  all  men  speak, 

When  want,  or  fear,  or  woe,  is  in  the  throat, 

So  that  each  word  gasped  out  is  like  a  shriek 

Pressed  from  the  sore  heart,  or  a  strange,  wild  note 

Sung  by  some  fay  or  fiend  !     There  is  a  strength 

Which  dies  if  stretched  too  far,  or  spun  too  fine ; 

Which  has  more  height  than  breadth,  more  depth  than  length. 

Let  but  this  force  of  thought  and  speech  be  mine, 

And  he  that  will  may  take  the  sleek,  fat  phrase, 

Which  glows  but  burns  not,  though  it  beam  and  shine ; 

Light,  but  no  heat,  —  a  flash,  but  not  a  blaze.  Alexander. 


REFERENCES. 

CHAPS.    II.    AND    III. 

History  of  the  English  Language.     Lounsbury. 
Hand  Book  of  the  English  Tongue.     Angus. 
English  Dictionary.     Unabridged.     Stormonth. 
The  Imperial  Dictionary. 

Etymological  Dictionary.     [2d  Edition.]     Skeat. 
Short  Stories  from  the  Dictionary.     Oilman. 
Affixes  to  English  W^ords.     Haldeman. 
Orammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language.     March. 
Grammar  of  Old  English.    Sievers-Cook. 


66  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

FIGURES. 

Figures  of  Speech  are  variations  of  the  literal  oi 
ordinary  forms  of  expression,  the  intention  being  to 
make  the  thouglit  more  attractive  or  more  striking. 

Examples. 

Literal.  Figurative. 

1.  Misfortunes  never  come  1.  When  sorrows  come, 

singly.  They  come  not  single  spies, 

But  in  battalions. 

Shakespeare. 

2.  Time  seems  short  when  we      2.  How  noiseless  falls  the  foot 

are  happy.  of  Time 

That  only  treads  on  flowers  ! 
W.  R.  Spencer. 

3.  Why  cannot  I  go  to  sleep?  3.  O,  gentle  sleep, 

Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have 
I  frighted  thee  ? 

Shakespeare. 

4.  The  king  lay  wounded  and      4.  So,  like  a  shattered  column, 

helpless.  lay  the  king.         Tennyson. 

Figures  of  Speech  are  of  many  different  kinds.  The 
principal  Figures  will  be  considered  in  order. 

I.  SIMILE. 

Simile  is  an  expression  of  resemblance  between  two 
different  things.  It  is  usually  introduced  by  such  words 
as  like  and  as. 


FIGURES.  67 

Not  all  expressed  comparisons  are  Similes.  The  tiger 
is  as  brave  as  the  lio7i  is  not  a  Simile,  because  the  things 
compared  have  too  many  points  of  resemblance.  The 
best  Similes  are  such  as  compare  things  which  are  in 
most  respects  unlike;  but  which  have  at  least  one 
strong  point  of  resemblance  in  appearance  or  qualities 
or  actions  or  in  the  effects  which  they  produce. 

EXERCISE. 

(a)  What  things  are  compared  ? 
(6)  Where  does  the  resemblance  lie? 
(c)  How  is  the  comparison  expressed? 

1 .  How  far  that  little  candle  throws  its  beams  ! 

So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world.  Shakespeare. 

2.  As  the  mountains  are   round   about  Jerusalem,  so  the 

Lord  is  round  about  his  people,  from  henceforth  even 
forever.  Psalms  cxxiv.  2. 

3.  The  wild  geese  fly, 

Storm-sent,  from  Arctic  moors  and  fells. 

Like  a  great  arrow  through  the  sky.  Whitfier. 

4.  Religion  is  to  the  soul  what  light  is  to  nature. 

5.  The  covetous  man  piues  in  plenty,  like  Tantalus,  up  to 

the  chin  in  water  and  yet  thirsty.  Adams. 

6.  It  is  with  words  as  with  sunbeams  —  the  more  they  are 

condensed,  the  deeper  they  burn.  Southey. 

7.  Her  hair  drooped  rouud  her  pallid  cheek 

Like  sea-weed  on  a  clam.  Holmes. 

8.  To  be  mixed  in  parish  stirs 

Is  worse  than  handling  chestnut-burrs.  Saxe. 


68  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

9.   The  hooded  clouds,  like  friars, 

Tell  their  beads  in  drops  of  rain.  Longfellow. 

10.   Human  life  may  be  compared  to  a  river,  flowing;  ever 
towards  the  sea  of  Eternity. 

II.  METAPHOR. 

Metaphor  is  another  figure  which  is  founded  upon 
the  resemblance  of  one  thing  to  another.  It  differs 
from  Simile  in  that  the  comparison  is  implied  instead 
of  being  formally  expressed.  In  Metaphor  we  speak  of 
one  thing  in  such  language  as  suggests  a  picture  of 
something  else.  As  in  Simile,  the  things  compared 
should  not  be  alike  in  too  many  particulars.  There  is 
no  Metaphor  in  saying,  That  man  is  a  hero. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  difference  be- 
tween Simile  and  Metaphor :  — 

SianLE.  Metaphor. 

1.  Life  is  like  an   isthmus  be-     1.  Life  is  an   isthmus  between 

tween  two  eternities.  two  eternities. 

2.  Habit  may  be   likened  to  a      2.  Habit  is  a  cable;   every  day 

cable ;  every  day  we  weave  we   weave    a    thread,   and 

a  tliread,  and  soon  we  can-  soon  we   cannot  break  it. 

not  break  it. 

3.  Happiness  is  like   sunshine ;      3.  The  sunshine  of  life  is  made 

it  is  made  up  of  very  little  up  of  very  little  beams, 

beams. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a)  What  things  are  compared? 

(6)  Show  wherein  lies  the  resemblance. 

(c)   Change  to  form  of  Simile. 


FIGURES.  69 

1 .  Kindness  is  the  golden  chain  by  which  society  is  bound 

together.  Goethe. 

2.  This  [snow]  is  the  poem  of  the  air, 

Slowly  in  silent  syllables  recorded.  Longfelloiu. 

3.  By   the    street   called    By-and-by   you   reach   a   house 

called  Never. 

4.  What  is  pride  ? 

A  whizzing  rocket 

That  would  emulate  a  star. 

5.  We  cannot  all  be  cabin  passengers  in  the  voyage  of  life. 
Some  must  be  before  the  mast. 

6.  Aloft  on  sk}'  and  mountain  wall 

Are  God's  great  pictures  hung.  Whittier. 

7.  Silently,  one  by  one,  in  the  infinite  meadows  of  heaven, 
Blossomed  the  lovely  stars,  the  forget-me-nots  of  the 

angels.  Longfellow. 

8.  In  the  bright  lexicon  of  youth 

There's  no  such  word  as  fail.  Buhuer. 

9.  A  certain  amount  of  opposition  is  a  great  help  to  a  man. 
Kites  rise  against  and  not  with  the  wind. 

10.    Spare  moments  are  the  gold-dust  of  time. 


III.   ALLEGORY. 

Allegory  is  also  founded  upon  resemblance ;  but  the 
comparison  is  more  extended  than  in  Simile  and  Meta- 
phor. An  Allegory  is  a  fictitious  story  designed  to 
teach  some  abstract  truth  by  the  use  of  symbolic  lan- 
guage.    Short  Allegories  are  called  Fables  or  Parables. 


70  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

The  diiference  between  Simile,  Metaphor,  and  Alle- 
gory may  be  illustrated  by  these  three  ways  of  repre- 
senting life  as  a  day's  journey  :  — 

Simile.  —  Life  roay  be  compared  to  a  day's  journey  from 
our  Father's  house  "into  a  far  country"  and  home  again. 

Metaphor.  — From  the  cradle  to  the  grave  is  but  a  day's 
journey. 

Allegory.  —  One  brioht  mornins;  a  child  left  his  father's 
house  and  wandered  out  into  the  wide  world.  Birds  sauo-  in 
the  tree-tops  and  gay  butterflies  fluttered  among  the  flowers 
which  grew  on  every  side.  The  child  ran  here  and  there, 
chasing  the  butterflies.  He  gathered  the  flowers  until  his 
hands  could  hold  no  more.     So  the  morniuo;  wore  on. 

As  the  sun  rose  higlicr,  the  birds  ceased  their  songs.  Noon 
found  the  chikl  liot  and  weary  with  chasing  butterflies.  The 
flowers  in  his  hands  drooped  and  faded.  The  way  became 
rougher  and  steeper  as  he  went  on,  and  often  he  stumbled 
over  the  stones  in  his  path. 

After  a  time  he  noticed  that  many  of  the  stones  around 
him  contained  gleams  of  gold  and  veins  of  silver,  and  some- 
times a  sparkling  gem  firmly  imbedded  in  the  coarse  rock. 

"  I  will  gather  these  beautiful  stones,"  said  he,  "  for  they 
will  not  fade  as  did  the  flowers." 

But  the  jewels  were  fast  in  the  rocks,  and,  with  all  his 
strength,  he  could  not  loosen  them.  Tears  came  to  the 
child's  eyes  when  he  found  that  all  these  precious  things  must 
be  left  behind,  because  he  was  not  strong  enough  to  carry 
the  stones  in  which  they  were  fixed.  Presently  he  grew 
braver,  and  said  to  himself,  "  Perhaps  among  the  little  stones 
I  may  find  some  jewels."  So,  as  the  afternoon  wore  away, 
he  filled  his  handkerchief  with  shining  pebbles,  and  carried 
the   precious  bundle  on  his  back,   while  with  his  one  free 


FIGURES.  71 

hand  he  grasped  every  little  stone  that  glistened  in  his 
path. 

As  the  shadows  grew  longer,  his  strength  began  to  fail. 
His  feet  were  bleeding  from  contact  with  the  sharp  rocks, 
and  the  burden  on  his  back  seemed  crushing  him  to  the 
earth.  Stopping  occasionally  to  rest,  he  examined  the  peb- 
bles which  he  had  collected  and  found  that  most  of  them  were 
worthless  ;  so,  a  few  at  a  time,  he  threw  them  all  away. 

As  the  dew  began  to  fall,  he  sighed,  "  I  am  so  tired  !  How 
pleasant  it  must  be  now  at  home  ;  and  how  far  away  I  have 
wandered  !     I  must  hasten  back  before  night  comes." 

The  stars  came  out  to  light  him  on  his  way,  and,  empty- 
handed,  he  went  home,  to  find  rest  and  shelter  in  his  fathei''s 
house. 

EXEEOISE. 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  expression,  "his  fath- 

er's house  "? 

2.  What  period  of  life  is  meant  by  the  morning? 

3.  What  are  represented  by  the  birds  and  butterflies? 

4.  What  by  the  flowers? 

5.  Give  a  literal  expression  for  "As  the  sun  rose  higher." 
G.    What  is  pictured  by  the  fading  flowers? 

7.  Explain  what  is  noeant  b}'  "  stones  in  the  path." 

8.  Why   is    it   proper  to    speak    of  the   way    as   growing 

steeper  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  noon? 

10.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  gold  and  jewels  among 

the  rocks? 

1 1 .  What  experience  of  human  life  is  expressed  in  the  sen- 

tence beginning,  "  Tears  came  to  the  child's  eyes"? 

12.  What  are  meant  by  the  pebbles? 


72  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

13.  Explain  the  expression,  "  As  the  shadows  grew  longer," 

14.  What  was  the  burden  which  he  carried? 

15.  What  is  meant  b}'  his  throwing  away  the  pebbles? 

16.  What  is  meant  by  the  falling  of  the  dew? 

17.  Express  in  literal  language  the  quotation  beginning,  "  I 

am  so  tired." 

18.  What  is  meant  by  the  stars  coming  out  to  light  him? 

19.  What  is  the  special  significance  of  the  expression  "  emp- 

ty-handed"? 

20.  Tell  the  story  in  literal  language. 

Examples  of  Allegory. 

The  Parables  of  tlie  Bible,     ^sop's  Fables. 
Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress.     Mirza's  Vision. 
The  Mountain  and  the  Squirrel.     Emerson. 
Little  Daffydowndilly.     Hawthorne. 

IV.    PERSONIFICATION. 

Personification  consists  in   attributing  life  to  inani- 
mate things. 

There  are  three  chief  kinds  of  Personification  :  — 

First.  That  produced  by  the  use  of  adjectives.  In  this 
form  of  Personification,  the  qualities  of  living  beings 
are  attributed  to  inanimate  things. 

Ex.  The  hungry  flames.     The  whistling  wind.     A  treach- 
erous calm. 

This  form  of  Personification  is  much  like  Metaphor, 
and  is  sometimes  so  called. 


FIGURES.  73 

Second.  That  produced  by  the  use  of  verbs.  Here  inani- 
mate things  are  represented  as  performing  the  actions 
of  living  beings. 

Ex.  The  winds  howled.  "  Our  bugles  sang  truce."  "  Hope 
enchanted  smiled." 

Third.  This  is  the  highest  form  of  Personification.  In 
this,  inanimate  things  are  directly  addressed,  as  if 
they  could  answer.  It  is  a  combination  of  Personifi- 
cation with  another  figure,  Apostrophe.' 

Ex.   "  Violet,  sweet  violet ! 

Thine  eyes  are  full  of  tears." 

Personification  and  Metaphor  are  often  combined. 

A  peculiar  form  of  Personification  is  common  in 
fables,  where  animals  and  plants  are  represented  as 
thinking  and  talking  like  men. 

EXEKOISE. 

(a)  Where  is  Personification  suggested? 
(&)   What  form  of  the  figure  is  used? 

1.  Kind  Fancy  plays  the  fairy  god-mother.  Lowell. 

2.  Scowling  turrets  and  frowning  battlements. 

3.  The  years  between 

Have  taught  some  sweet,  some  bitter  lessons.       Lov:ell. 

4.  Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth, 

And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own.  Gray. 

5.  Creaking  with  laughter  swings  the  old  barn  door 
At  little  winking  seeds  upon  the  floor, 

Dropped  from  four  hungry  barrels  in  a  row.       Cordner. 

6.  Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time.  Yoicng. 

7.  Angel  of  Peace,  thou  hast  wandered  too  long.  Holmes. 


74  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

8.  Joy  and  Temperance  and  Repose 

Slam  the  door  on  the  doctor's  nose.  Longfellow. 

(Translation.) 

9.  O  Nature,  how  fair  is  thy  face 

And  how  light  is  thy  heart !  Owen  Meredith. 

10.    All  day  the  sea-waves  sobbed  with  sorrow.         Whittier. 

V.    ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis  is  a  figure  founded  upon  unlikeness. 
Things  are  contrasted  or  opposed  to  each  other. 

The  best  examples  of  Antithesis  are  those  in  which 
the  contrast  is  the  most  forcible.  Contrast  verbs  with 
verbs,  adjectives  with  adjectives,  nouns  with  nouns,  etc. 

Ex.   "  Deeds  show  what  we  are  ;  words,  what  we  should  be." 

Often  there  is  a  double  or  even  a  triple  contrast  in 
the  same  sentence. 

Ex.  "Silence  is  deep  as  Eternity;  speech  is  shallow  as 
Time." 

Here  silence  and  speech  are  contrasted ;  deep  and 
shallow ;  Eternity  and  Time. 

EXERCISE. 

(a)  What  things  are  contrasted? 
(6)   Is  there  more  than  one  contrast? 

1.  Better  to  reign  in  hell  than  serve  in  heaven.  Milton. 

2.  Fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread.  Pope. 

3.  Character  is  what  we  are;    reputation   is  what   others 

tliink  we  are. 

4.  The  wearj-  to  sleep  and  the  wounded  to  die.       Campbell. 

5.  Thoughts  that  breathe  and  words  that  burn.  Gran. 

6.  To  err  is  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine.  Pope. 


FIGURES.  75 

7.  Strain  at  a  gnat  and  swallow  a  camel.      Matt,  xxiii.  24. 

8.  As  sad  as  earth,  as  sweet  as  heaven.  Holmes. 

9.  From  grave  to  ga}-,  from  lively  to  severe.  Pope. 
10.  God  made  the  country,  and  man  made  the  town.  Goioper. 

VI.    EPIGRAM. 

Epigram  formerly  meant  an  inscription  on  a  monn- 
ment  —  an  epitaph.  It  is  used  now  with  reference  to  a 
brief,  pointed  saying  that  is  in  the  nature  of  a  proverb. 
The  best  Epigrams  are  those  in  which  there  is  an  ap- 
parent contradiction  between  the  intended  meaning  and 
the  form  of  the  expression. 

Ex.  "  Well  begun  is  half  done." 

Here  the  intended  meaning  is,  that  if  we  once  under- 
take a  task,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  complete  it. 

Like  Antithesis,  Epigram  is  founded  upon  contrast. 
Puns  are  often  expressed  by  Epigrams. 

EXEEOISE. 

1.  Great  truths  are  often  said  in  the  fewest  words. 

2.  He  is  the  richest  who  is  content  with  the  least.  Socrates. 

3.  The  more  we  do,  the  more  we  can  do  ;  the  more  busy 

we  are,  the  more  leisure  we  have.  Hazlett. 

4.  The  child  is  father  of  the  man.  Wordsivorth. 

5.  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing.  Pope. 

6.  Verbosity  is  cured  by  a  wide  vocabulary. 

7.  Beauty,  when  unadorned,  adorned  the  most.     Thomson. 

8.  The  fastest  colors  are  those  that  won't  run. 

9.  A  new  wa3'  to  contract  debts  —  pay  them  off ! 

10.    Beneath  this  stone  my  wife  doth  lie  ; 

She's  now  at  rest,  and  so  am  I.  Old  Epitaph. 


76  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

VII.    METONYMY. 

Metonymy  means  a  change  of  name.  It  is  some- 
what like  Metaphor,  but  it  commonly  lies  in  a  single 
word,  whereas  Metaphor  is  usually  more  extended. 

Metaphor  is  founded  upon  resemhlance.  The  thing 
spoken  of  and  the  thing  meant  are  alike  in  some  respect 
which  is  important  to  the  thouglit. 

Ex.  "The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd."  His  care  is  the  point 
illustrated. 

Metonymy  is  founded  upon  relation.  The  thing 
spoken  of  and  the  thing  meant  may  be  wholly  unlike, 
but  the  relation  between  them  is  such  that  the  mention 
of  one  suggests  the  other. 

Ex.    "  The  drunkard  loves  his  bottle."     Here  there  is  no 

resemblance^  but  very  close  relation. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  Metonymy.  The  follow- 
ing are  among  the  most  common  :  — 

1.  Container  for  thing  contained. 

Ex.  The  kettle  boils,     i.e.  the  water  in  the  kettle. 

2.  Sign  for  thing  signified. 

Ex.  He  deserves  the  palm.     i.e.  the  victory. 

3.  Cause  for  Effect. 

Ex.  Have  you  read  Shakespeare?     i.e.  his  works. 

4.  Effect  for  Cause. 

Ex.  Gray  hairs  should  be  respected,     i.e.  age. 

EXEEOISE. 
(a)  Point  out  the  figure. 
(6)   What  kind  of  Metonymy  is  it? 

1.  Our  ships  opened  fire. 

2.  Streaming  grief  his  faded  cheek  bedewed. 


FIGURES.  77 

3.  There  is  too  much  red  tape  about  this  system. 

4.  He  addressed  the  Chair. 

5.  The  bench,  the  bar,  the  pulpit. 

6.  His  steel  gleamed  on  high. 

7.  He  is  an  excellent  shot. 

8.  All  flesh  is  grass.  Isaiah  xl.  6, 

9.  He  beheld  a  sea  of*  faces. 

10.    Let  us  gather  around  the  festive  board. 

Some  authorities  regard  as  Metonymy  the  putting  of 
the  name  of  the  material  of  which  an  object  is  made  for 
the  name  of  tlie  thing  itself.  Others  regard  this  as  an 
example  of  Synecdoche.  The  connection  in  which  the 
word  is  used  will  commonly  determine  which  figure  it 
constitutes. 

Is  there  any  figure  of  this  kind  in  the  Exercise  ? 

VIII.    SYNECDOCHE. 

'This  figure  consists  in  putting  a  part  for  the  whole, 
or  the  whole  for  a  part.  It  is  saying  more  or  less  than 
we  mean. 

Ex.  "Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread."  i.e.  all  things 
needful  for  us.     Here  a  part  is  put  for  the  whole. 

Ex.  "The  world  knows  his  worth."  i.e.  the  part  of  the 
world  which  knows  him.     Here  the  whole  is  used  for  a  part. 

EXEECISE. 

(a)  Point  out  the  figure. 
(&)  "Why  is  it  Synecdoche  ? 

1.  We  have  tea  at  six  o'clock. 

2.  He  employs  fifty-seven  hands. 

3.  I  will  not  be  paid  in  paltry  gold. 


78  LESSOXS   IN    ENGLISH. 

4.  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold.  Byron. 

5.  The  cattle  iipon  a  thousand  hills.  Psalms. 

6.  A  maiden  of  sixteen  summers. 

7.  The  canvas  exhibited  by  this  artist  is  a  marvellous  pro- 

duction. 

8.  A  life  on  the  ocean  wave,  a  home  on  the  rolling  deep. 

9.  Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain.         Byron, 
10.    She  bestowed  her  hand  and  heart  upon  a  worthy  man. 

IX.    APOSTROPHE. 

Apostrophe  is  direct  address  to  the  absent  as  if  they 
were  present,  to  the  dead  as  if  they  were  living,  or  to 
inanimate  things  as  if  they  had  life. 

It  is  often  combined  with  Metaphor  and  Personifi- 
cation. 

EXERCISE. 

(a)   What  is  addressed  ? 

(6)   Is  there  any  other  figure? 

1.  Gentle  Spring,  in  sunshine  clad, 

Well  dost  thou  thy  power  display.  Longfellow. 

2.  Thou  hast  taught  me.  Silent  River, 

Many  a  lesson,  deep  and  long.  Longfellow. 

3.  [To  the  sun.] 

O  thou  that  rollest  above,  round  as  the  shield  of  my 
fathers!  Ossian. 

4.  Thus,  0  Genius,  are  thy  footprints  hallowed.  Longfellow. 

5.  Toll:  toll:  toll: 

Thou  bell  by  billows  swung.  3Irs.  Sigourney. 

6.    M}-  country,  'tis  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty. 
Of  thee  I  sing.  Sam.  F.  Smith. 


FIGURES.  79 

7.  You  moon,  have  you  done  something  wrong  in  heaven, 
That  God  has  hidden  your  face?  Jean  Ingelow. 

8.  Go,  little  book,  whose  pages  hold 
Those  garnered  3xars  in  loving  trust. 

9.  O  Death,  where  is  thy  sting?     O  Grave,  where  is  thy 

victory?  I.  Cor.  xv.  55. 

10.    Ye  winds  of  memory,  sweep  the  silent  lyre.         Holmes. 

X.    EXCLAMATION. 

Sometimes  a  statement,  instead  of  being  made  in  a 
declarative  form,  is  made  more  forcible  by  being  ex- 
pressed in  an  exclamatory  style.  When  the  thought 
springs  from  real  emotion,  we  may  call  the  figure  Ex- 
clamation. 

Not  every  exclamatory  sentence,  however,  contains 
the  rhetorical  figure  Exclamation. 

Ex.  "Oh,  yes!  what  a  pity!"  is  exclamatory,  but  does 
not  contain  the  figure. 

EXEKOISE. 

(a)  Show  why  this  is  Exclamation. 

(b)  Change  to  declarative  form. 

1 .  Farewell,  a  long  farewell,  to  all  my  greatness  !  Shakespeare. 

2.  How  poor  are  they  that  have  not  patience  !    Shakespeare. 

3.  But  oh,  for  the  touch  of  a  vanished  hand, 

And  the  sound  of  a  voice  that  is  still !  Tennyson. 

4.  How  dear  to  this  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood. 
When  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view  !  Woodworth. 

5.  O  strong  hearts    and  true  I     Not  one  went  back  in   the 

Mayflower.  LongfeUoiv. 


80  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

6.  Oh,  what  a  tangled  web  we  weave 

When  first  we  practise  to  deceive  !  Scott. 

7.  A  horse !  a  horse !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  !  Shakespeare. 

8.  Oh,  the  glorious  Thanksgivings 

Of  the  days  that  are  no  more  !  Smuller. 

9.  Oh  that  the  rules  of  our  living 

More  like  to  the  golden  would  be  !  Nourse. 

10.    Ah  !  vainest  of  all  things 

Is  the  gratitude  of  kings.  Longfellow. 

XI.    INTERROGATION. 

When  a  question  is  asked,  not  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining an  answer,  but  for  rhetorical  effect,  there  is  the 
figure  of  Interrogation.  Not  every  interrogative  sen- 
tence, however,  contains  the  figure. 

Peculiarities  of  Rhetorical  Interrogation. 

An  affirmative  interrogation  is  an  emphatic  form  of 
deniah 

Ex.  "Am  I  Rome's  slave?"  is  understood  to  mean,  You 
well  know  that  I  am  not  Rome's  slave. 

A  negative  Interrogation  is  an  emphatic  affirmation. 

Ex.  "Am  I  not  an  apostle?  am  I  not  free?"  means,  I 
am  an  apostle,  etc. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a)  What  is  the  effect  of  the  Interrogation? 
(6)   Change  to  literal  form  of  expression. 

1 .  What  man  is  free  from  sin  ? 

2.  Am  I  my  brother's  keeper?  Gen.  iv.  9. 

3.  Who  is  not  proud  to  be  an  American? 


FIGURES.  81 

-1 .    Hast  thou  a  charm  to  stay  the  morning  star 

111  his  steep  course?  Colendge. 

o.    Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God?       Job  iv.  17. 

(».    Hath  he  not  always  treasures,  always  frieuds  — 

Tlie  good,  great  man?  Coleridge. 

7.  Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin  or  the  leopard  his 

spots?  Jer.  xiii.  23. 

8.  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at 

the  price  of  chains  and  slavery?  Patrick  Henry. 

9.  Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust? 

Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death?        Gray. 

10.    Hast  thou  entered  into  the  treasures  of  the  snow  ?  or  hast 
thou  seen  the  treasures  of  the  hail?    Job  xxx\iii.  22. 


Xn.    HYPERBOLE. 

Hyperbole  is  exaggeration.  It  is  sometimes  effective 
in  descriptions  of  the  grand  and  sublime.  Often,  how- 
ever, it  is  absurd,  and  has  the  opposite  effect  from  that 
intended. 

The  extravagant  use  of  strong  adjectives  is  a  bad 
habit  in  conversation  and  in  writing.  Extravagant 
comparisons  also  should  be  avoided. 

Examples  of  "  School-girl  Hyperbole  " :  — 

I  am  "tired  to  death";  "tickled  to  pieces";  "hot  as 
fire"  ;  "cold  as  ice"  ;  "  crazy  with  the  tooth-ache"  ;  "  aw- 
fully glad";  "  excruciatingly  hungry "  ;  "a  perfectly  mag- 
nificent time  "  :  "an  exquisitely  loVely  pug  dog  "  ;  "a  divine 
uioustiiche." 


82  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

EXERCISE. 

(a)  Point  out  the  Hyperbole. 

(b)  Select  the  best  examples. 

1.  "Waves  mountain  hio;h  broke  over  the  reef. 

2.  They  were  swifter  than  eagles  ;  they  were  stronger  than 

lions.  II.  Sam.  i.  23. 

3.  The  tumult  reaches  the  stars. 

4.  Rivers  of  water  run  down  my  eyes  because  they  keep 

not  thy  law.  Psalms  cxix.  136. 

5.  Every  sentence  began  or  closed  with  the  name  of  Pris- 

cilla.  '  Longfellow. 

6.  I've  been  looking  all  over  creation  for  vou. 

7.  A  rescued  land 

Sent  up  a  shout  of  victory  from  the  field, 
That  rocked  her  ancient  mountains. 

8.  He  was  so  gaunt  that  the  case  of  a  flageolet  would  have 

been  a  mansion  for  him. 

9.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day  that  the  mountains 

shall  drop  down  new  wine,  and  the  hills  shall  flow 
with  milk.  Joel  iii.  18. 

10.    Here  [at  Concord]  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood. 
And  fired  the  shot  lieard  round  the  world.  Emerson. 

XIII.     CLIMAX. 

"Climax  is  an  ascending  series  of  thoughts  or  state- 
ments which  gradually  increase  in  importance. 

In  true  Climax  a  weaker  or  less  important  thought 
should  never  follow  a  stronger  one. 

Anti-Climax  reverses  the  order  of  the  expressions, 
ending  with  the  weakest  or  least  important  thought  or 
circumstance.     This  is  often  used  in  liumorous  writings. 


FIGURES.  83 


EXERCISE. 


(a)   Is  this  Climax  or  Auti-Climax  ? 

(6)    Why? 

(c)    Is  the  Climax  well  arranged  ? 

1 .  Since  concord  was  lost,  friendship  was  lost ;  fidelity  was 

lost ;  liberty  was  lost,  —  all  was  lost ! 

2.  Here  I  stand  for  impeachraeut  or  trial !     I  dare  accusa- 

tion !  I  defy  the  honorable  gentleman  !  I  defy  the 
government !     I  defy  their  whole  phalanx  ! 

3.  The  enemy  is  now  hovering  upon  our  borders,  preparing 

to  press  the  knife  to  our  throats,  to  devastate  our 
fields,  to  quarter  themselves  in  our  houses,  and  to 
devour  our  poultry. 

4.  How  then  shall  they  call  on  him  in  whom  they  have  not 

believed  ?  and  how  shall  they  believe  in  him  of  whom 
they  have  not  heard  ?  and  how  shall  they  hear  without 
a  preacher?  Romans  x.  14. 

5.  Oh  dear  !  oh  dear  !  what  shall  I  do? 
I've  lost  my  wife  and  seed  corn  too  ! 

6.  David  was  a  great  warrior,  a  great  statesman,  a  great 

poet,  and  a  skillful  performer  on  the  harp. 

7.  Great   men,    such   as   Washington,   Adams,  Jefferson, 

Arnold,  and  the  friend  of  my  worthy  opponent. 

8.  He  lost  his  wife,  his  child,  his  household  goods,  and  his 

dog,  at  one  fell  swoop. 

9.  I  am  thinking,  if  Aunt  knew  so  little  of  sin, 

What  a  wonder  Aunt  Tabitha's  aunt  must  have  been  ; 
And  her  grand-aunt,  —  it  scares  me  !  Holmes. 

10.    The  arm  of  the  Lord  is  as  fixed  as  fate,  as  sure  as  eter- 
nitv,  as  strong  as  the  rock  of  Gibraltar. 


84  LESSONS   IX   ENGLISH. 

XIV.     IRONY. 

Irony  is  disguised  satire.  When  we  praise  a  thing 
and  really  mean  to  ridicule  it,  we  make  use  of  this 
figure. 

EXERCISE. 
Explain  the  Irony  in  these  extracts  :  — 

1 .  What  has  the  gray-haired  prisoner  done  ? 
Has  murder  stained  his  hands  with  gore  ? 
Not  so ;  his  crime  is  a  fouler  one  — 

God  made  the  old  man  poor.  Whittier. 

2.  Although  I  would  have  you  early  instill  into  your  chil- 
dren's hearts  the  love  of  cruelty,  yet  by  no  means  call 
it  by  its  true  name,  but  encourage  them  in  it  under  the 
name  of  fun. 

3.  Have  not  the  Indians  been  kindly  and  justly  treated? 
Have  not  the  temporal  things,  the  vain  baubles  and 
filthy  lucre  of  this  world,  which  were  too  apt  to  en- 
gage their  worldly  and  selfish  thoughts,  been  benevo- 
lently taken  from  them  ?  and  have  they  not  instead 
thereof,  been  taught  to  set  their  affections  on  things 
above  ? 

4.  Here  under  leave  of  Brutus,  and  the  rest, 
(For  Brutus  is  an  honourable  man  ; 

So  are  they  all,  all  honourable  men ;) 
Come  I  to  speak  in  CtBsar's  funeral. 
He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me  : 
But  Brutus  sa3's  he  was  ambitious ; 
And  Brutus  is  an  honourable  man. 

***  *  *  *** 

Good  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  me  not  stir  you  up 
To  such  a  sudden  flood  of  mutinv. 


FIGURES.  85 

They  that  have  done  this  deed,  are  honourable  ; 
What  private  griefs  they  have,  alas  !  I  know  not, 
That  made  them  do't ;  they  are  wise  and  honourable, 
And  will,  no  doubt,  with  reasons  answer  you.  Shakespeare. 

Cry  aloud :    for  he  is  a  god ;   either  he  is  talking,  or 
he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey,  or  peradventure 
he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  waked  ! 
[Elijah  to  the  priests  of  Baal.]  I.  Kings  xviii.  27. 


ADDITIONAL  riGUKES. 
I.    Vision. 

Vision  consists  in  describing  past,  absent,  or  imagi- 
nary scenes  as  if  they  were  actually  before  our  eyes. 

It  is  frequently  combined  with  Personification  «id 
Apostrophe. 

Ex.    I  see  before  me  the  gladiator  lie  ; 

He  leans  upon  his  hand  —  his  manly  brow 

Consents  to  death,  but  conquers  agony, 

And  his  drooped  head  sinks  gradually  low.       Byron. 

II.    Euphemism. 

Euphemism  is  the  mention  of  disagreeable  things  by 
agreeable  names. 

Ex.  "She  certainly  displays  as  little  vanit}^  in  regard  to 
her  personal  appearance  as  any  young  lad\'  I  ever  saw  "  is  a 
delicate  way  of  saying,  "  She  is  imtldy." 

"  She  suffers  from  an  over-active  imagination,"  meaning 
"/S/ie  is  iocJined  to  exaggerate.^'' 


86  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

III.    Onomatopceia. 

Onomatopoeia  is  adapting  the  sound  to  the  sense. 

Ex.    Poe's  poem  "The  Bells"  coutaius  fine  examples  of 
this  figure  ;  as  does  also  Southey's  "  Cataract  of  Lodore." 

How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle, 

In  the  icy  air  of  night ! 

"While  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 

All  the  heavens  seem  to  twinkle 

With  a  crystalline  delight, — 

Keeping  time,  time,  time, 

In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 

To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 

From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells. 

Bells,  bells,  bells,  — 

From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells.    Foe. 

IV.    Litotes. 

This  figure  consists  in  making  a  statement  by  denying 
its  opposite. 

Ex.    "  The  immortal  names 

That  were  not  born  to  die."     i.e.  that  will  live. 

V.    Parallel. 

Parallel  is  a  continued  comparison  of  two  similar 
objects,  showing  the  points  of  resemblance  and  of  dif- 
ference.    It  is  an  extended  Antithesis. 

Ex.  The  style  of  Dryden  is  capricious  and  varied  ;  that 
of  Pope  is  cautious  and  uniform.  Dryden  obej's  the  motions 
of  liis  own  mind  ;  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  rules  of 
composition.      Dryden   is   sometimes   vehement  and  rapid : 


FIGUEES.  87 

Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  gentle.  Dryclen's  page 
is  a  natural  field,  rising  into  inequalities,  and  diversified 
by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegetation  ;  Pope's 
is  a  velvet  lawn,  shaven  by  the  scythe  and  leveled  by  the 
roller.  Johnson. 

VI.   Allusion. 

Allusion  is  a  reference  to  some  familiar  event  in 
history  or  romance,  or  to  some  familiar  expression  in 
literature,  for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  description, 
or  illustration. 

Ex.   When  I  was  a  beggarly  boy. 
And  lived  in  a  cellar  damp, 
I  had  not  a  friend  nor  a  toy, 
But  I  had  Aladdin's  lamp. 
When  I  could  not  sleep  for  cold, 
I  had  fire  enough  in  my  brain  ; 
And  builded  with  roofs  of  gold 
My  beautiful  castles  in  Spain.  Lowell. 

He  was  the  Achilles  of  the  war. 

The  *  of  his  profession,  the  type  of  honesty,  the  !  of  all ; 
and  though  the  |^  of  death  has  put  a  .  to  his  existence, 
every  §  of  his  life  is  without  a  || .     Printers'  Toast  to  Franklin. 

VII.    Alliteration. 

Alliteration  is  not  strictly  a  figure  of  speech,  but  is 
sometimes  called  a  figure  of  emphasis.  It  consists  in 
the  repetition  of  the  same  initial  letter  in  successive 
words.  The  use  of  this  device  was  the  distingnishincr 
characteristic  of  early  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  ;  and  modern 
poetry  contains  many  effective  examples.     Alliteration 


88  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

occurs  in  many  proverbs.     It  is  employed  in  titles  of 
books  and  headings  of  newspaper  articles. 

Ex.  "Apt  Alliteration's  artful  aid."  "Man}'  men  of 
many  minds." 

VIII.    Pleonasm. 

This  figure  consists  in  the  use  of  redundant  words, 
for  purposes  of  emphasis.  What  is  ordinarily  a  fault  in 
construction  may  make  the  thought  clearer  and  more 
forcible. 

Ex.  "  Thy  rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me."  "  Know 
ye  that  the  Lord  he  is  God." 

FAULTY  riGURES. 

Use  of  Figures.  —  The  chief  purposes  in  the  use  of 
figures  are  the  following :  — 

Fh'st.   To  make  the  thought  more  agreeable  or  attrac- 
tive.    Figures  are  the  ornaments  of  speech. 

Second.   To  make  the  thought  clearer  and  more  forcible, 
by  explanation  and  illustration. 

Abuse  of  Fig-ures.  —  Figures  which  do  not  serve 
either  of  these  purposes  are  faulty.  Simile  and  Meta- 
phor, being  the  figures  most  commonly  employed,  are 
those  in  the  use  of  which  young  writers  are  most  likely 
to  err.  Hyperbole,  Antithesis,  Exclamation,  and  CHmax 
are  other  figures  which  are  liable  to  abuse. 

MISTAKES   IN   THE   USE  OF   SIMILE   AND 
METAPHOR. 

1.  Too  Close  Resemblance.  —  The  resemblance  upon 
which  the  fiuure  is  founded  should  not  be  too  close  and 


FIGURES.  89 

obvious.     It  pleases   the    mind  to    discover  a  likeness 
where,  at  first  sight,  none  appears  to  exist. 

Ex.  The  comparison  of  two  ambitious  men  —  Napoleon 
to  Cffisar,  two  rich  men  —  Vauderbilt  to  Crui'sus,  two  beauti- 
ful women — Eve  to  Venus,  does  not  constitute  a  good  simile 
or  metaphor. 

A  fleecy  cloud  may  be  compared  to  snow,  which  it 
closely  resembles ;  but  the  mind  is  better  pleased  with 
Lowell's  fancy  of 

"  A  sky  above, 
Where  one  white  cloud  like  a  stray  lamb  doth  move." 

Ossian  says  of  a  strain  of  music  :  — 

It  was  "  Like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  sweet  and 
mournful  to  the  soul." 

This  is  far  more  effective  than  if  he  had  compared  the 
music  to  the  song  of  a  lark  or  a  nightingale. 

Whittier,   in    describing    a    quick-tempered    woman, 

says : — 

"  Under  low  brows,  black  with  night, 

Rayed  out  at  times  a  dangerous  light. 

The  sharp  heat-lightnings  of  her  face." 

This  unusual  metaphor  is  more  forcible  than  such 
expressions  as  "  the  angry  blaze  of  her  eyes  "  or  "  a  face 
lit  with  flames  of  passion." 

2.  Worn-out  Figures.  —  Many  comparisons  which 
were  originally  beautiful  and  impressive  have  become 
so  familiar  by  the  repetition  of  generations  of  writers 
that  they  no  longer  add  grace  and  dignity  to  the  style. 
Such  figures  may  be  described  as  trite  and  hackneyed. 
The  use  of  them  should  be  avoided. 


90  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

Ex,  The  silver  moon  ;  smiling  morn  ;  raven  tresses  ;  ruby 
lips  ;  alabaster  brow  ;  e3^es  bright  as  stars  ;  fair  as  a  lily  ; 
cunning  as  a  fox  ;  brave  as  a  lion  ;  cold  as  ice  ;  the  com- 
parison of  passion  to  a  tempest ;  time  to  a  river  ;  a  mourner 
to  a  drooping  flower. 

3.  Too  Remote  Keseniblance.  —  Figures  should  not 
be  founded  upon  too  remote  resemblance.  Such  similes 
and  metaphors  are  regarded  as  far-fetched.  Compar- 
isons of  this  kind  do  not  embellish  the  thought  nor  do 
they  add  to  its  clearness  and  force.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  divert  the  mind  from  the  main  thought,  in  the 
attempt  to  discover  a  likeness  which  is  not  apparent. 

Ex.  Longfellow  thus  describes  the  coming  of  night:  — 

"The  day  is  done,  and  the  darkness 
Falls  from  the  wing  of  night, 
As  a  feather  is  wafted  downward 
From  an  eagle  in  his  flight." 

When  we  study  this  figure,  we  are  disappointed  in 
the  illustration.  There  is  neither  beauty  nor  accuracy 
in  comparing  the  darkness  that  slowly  and  almost  im- 
perceptibly envelops  all  nature  to  a  feather  dropped 
from  a  bird's  wing. 

4.  Inappropriate  Figures,  —  Figures  should  be  in 
harmony  with  the  subject  which  they  are  intended  to 
explain  or  illustrate  or  adorn. 

In  serious  discourse,  similes  and  metaphors  should 
not  be  drawn  from  resemblances  to  things  that  are  Ioav 
and  trivial.  Such  comparisons  are  degrading  to  the  style. 

Ex.  "Our  prayers  and  God's  mercy  are  like  two  buckets 
in  a  well.     While  one  ascends,  the  other  descends." 


FIGURES.  91 

Here  the  thought  derives  no  force  from  the  illustra- 
tioD,  because  the  comparison  is  inappropriate.  Observe 
also  that  the  bucket  which  descends  is  the  empty  one. 

J.  G.  Holland  describes  a  stream  as 

"  SparkHiig  through  a  lovely  valley  like  a  gold  chain  over 
an  embroidered  vest." 

We  instinctively  feel  that  such  a  comparison  is  in 
bad  taste. 

In  humorous  writings,  it  is  often  the  author's  inten- 
tion to  reduce  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous  by  compari- 
sons of  this  kind.  Many  examples  of  burlesque  simile 
may  be -found  in  the  writings  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

Ex.  "  And  silence,  like  a  poultice,  comes 

To  heal  the  blows  of  sound." 

The  humor  of  such  an  expression  consists  in  the 
surprise  of  finding  a  resemblance  between  things  which 
are  so  diverse  in  character.  There  is  danger,  however, 
of  carrying  this  style  of  writing  to  excess.  Holmes 
makes  this  mistake  when  he  says :  — 

"Two  meeting-houses  stood  on  two  eminences  facing  each 
other,  and  looking  like  a  couple  of  fighting-cocks  with  their 
necks  straight  up  in  the  air,  —  as  if  they  would  flap  their 
roofs  the  next  thing,  and  crow  out  of  their  upstretched 
steeples,  and  peck  at  each  other's  glass  eyes  with  their 
sharp-pointed  weather-cocks." 

Under  the  head  of  Inappropriate  Figures,  should  be 
noticed  what  is  sometimes  called  "high-flown  "  lan- 
guage or  bombast.  This  consists  in  the  attempt  to 
elevate  low  or  trivial  subjects  by  comparisons  with 
the  lofty  and  sublime. 


92  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Ex.  A  public  speaker,  referring  to  one  of  our  common 
anniversary  days,  exclaimed,  "  Pharos  of  the  Ages,  we  hail 
thy  glimmerings  'mid  the  cataracts  of  Time  !  " 

A  young  writer  describes  a  dead  cat  floating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  as  "complacently  crossing  the  Styx  of 
feline  futurity." 

5.  Unfamiliar  Objects.  —  Similes  and  Metaphors 
should  not  be  drawn  from  objects  with  which  the 
ordinary  reader  is  unacquainted.  Such  figures  fail  to 
enlighten  the  reader,  and  they  make  the  writer  appear 
affected  and  pedantic. 

Under  the  title  of  "Unfamiliar  Objects"  may  be 
noted  comparisons  founded  upon  — 

1.  Local  and  personal  allusions  and  traditions. 

2.  References  to  obscure  places. 

3.  Mention  of  obscure  characters  in  mythology,  romance, 

or  history. 

4.  Facts  in  science  or  philosophy,  or  technical  terms 

pertaining  to  trades  and  professions. 

Examples  from  Holmes  :  "  Malzel's  Turk  "  ;  "  the  marshes 
of  Cagliari  " ;  "  Ichaboe "  ;  "  the  Codex  Vaticanus " ;  "riding 
at  the  quintain" ;  "  Babbage's  calculating  machine"  ;  "the 
parallax  of  thought  and  feeling"  ;  "Chladni's  experiment"  : 
"  the  Gayatri  "  ;  "  somebody's  O'm." 

6.  Strained  Metaphors.  —  Metaphors  should  not  be 
carried  too  far.  If  the  comparison  is  drawn  out  into 
trivial  details,  the  effect  is  wearisome  to  the  reader  and 
belittling  to  the  thought. 

Ex.  Young  furnishes  an  example  of  strained  met- 
aphor when  he  says  of  old  age  that  it  should 


I 


FIGUEES.  93 

"  Walk  thoughtful  on  the  silent,  solemn  shore 
Of  that  vast  ocean  it  must  sail  so  soon  ; 
And  put  good  works  on  board  ;  and  wait  the  wind 
That  shortly  blows  us  into  worlds  unknown." 

The  first  two  lines  are  beautiful  and  impressive,  but 
their  effect  is  weakened  by  the  added  particulars  of 
loading  the  ship  and  waiting  for  the  wind. 

Lowell  thus  describes  the  growth  of  friendship :  — 

"  Each  year  to  ancient  friendships  adds  a  ring, 
As  to  an  oak,  and  precious  more  and  more, 
AYithout  deservingness  or  help  of  ours, 
They  grow,  and,  silent,  wider  spread,  each  year. 
Their  unbought  ring  of  shelter  or  of  shade." 

This  impresses  us  as  a  happy  thought,  well  expressed ; 
but  when  he  goes  on  to  say, 

"  Sacred  to  me  the  lichens  on  the  bark. 

Which  Nature's  milliners  would  scrape  away," 

we  feel  that  he  has  carried  the  metaphor  too  far. 

7.  Mixed  ^letapliors.  —  The  fault  here  referred  to 
has  two  manifestations  :  — 

1.  The   confusion  of  different  metaphors  in  the  same 

sentence. 

2.  The  intermingling  of  metaphorical  language   with 

literal. 

Example  of  Confused  Metaphor :  — 

"  May  the  word  preached  be  like  a  nail  driven  in  a  sure 
place,  sending  its  roots  downward  and  its  branches  upward, 
spreading  itself  like  a  green  bay-tree,  fair  as  the  moon,  clear 
as  the  sun,  and  terrible  as  an  armv  with  banners." 


94  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

Example  of  the  Literal  blended  with  the  Metaphor- 
ical :  — 

He  was  the  very  keystone  of  the  state,  and  remarkable 
for  his  delicate  handwriting. 

This  is  a  serious  fault  in  composition.  It  is  evident 
that  either  the  metaphorical  or  the  literal  form  of  ex- 
pression should  be  maintained  until  the  thought  is  com- 
pleted. 

EXEEOISE. 
Criticise  the  following  faulty  figures  :  — 

1.  Mr.  Speaker,  I  smell  a  rat,  I  see  him  floating  in  the  air ; 

but  mark  me,  sir,  I  will  nip  him  in  the  bud. 

2.  Jonas,  my  son,  you  are  entering  upon  your  life  ;  before 

you  the  doors  of  the  future  open  wide,  and,  like  a 
young  squirrel  escaping  from  his  cage,  you  go  forth 
to  navigate  the  sea  of  life  upon  your  own  wings. 

3.  The  germ,  the  dawn,  of  a  new  vein    in   literature  lies 

there. 

4.  Her  cheeks  bloomed  with  roses  and  health. 

5.  Ideas  rejected  peremptorily  at  the  time  often  rankle  and 

bear  fruit  by  and  by. 

6.  He  flung  his  powerful   frame   into  the  saddle  and  his 

great  soul  into  the  cause. 

/7.  This  world  with  all  its  trials  is  the  furnace  through 
which  the  soul  must  pass  and  be  developed  before  it 
is  ripe  for  the  next  world. 

8.    The  ver}-  recognition  of  these  or  any  of  them  by  the 
jurisprudence  of  a  nation  is  a  mortal  wound  to  the 


FIGURES.  96 

very  keystone  upon  which  the  whole  vast  arch  of 
morality  reposes. 

-;9.    Some  of  these  groundworks  are,  like  sand,  lacking  in 
/  power  and  solidity  to   sustain    the  mighty  edifice  of 

Christian  sanctification  ;  and  so  it  comes  to  pass,  too 
frequently,  that  men  who  did  run  well  fail  in  their 
course  and  make  shipwreck  of  both  faith  and  good- 
ness. 

10.  Sailing  on  the  sea  of  life,  we  are  often  in  danger  from 

the  temptations  around  us. 

11.  Virtue  alone  can  save  us  from  the  hosts  of  evil  when 

they  roll  in  upon  us. 

12.  He  alone  can  manage  the  storm-tossed  ship  of  state  on 

its  march. 

13.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the 

thickest  gloom.         ,; . 

14.  Eaton,  Davenport,  and  five  others  were  the  seven  jjillars 

for  the  next  House  of  Wisdom  in  the  wilderness.  In 
August,  1639,  the  seven  pillars  assembled,  possess- 
ing for  the  time  full  power. 

15.  We  must  keep  the  ball  rolling  until  it  becomes  a  thorn 
;  in  the  side  of  Congress. 

16.  Opposite  in  the  blue  vault  stood  the  moon  like  a  silver 

shield,  raining  her  bright  arrows  on  the  sea. 

17.  We  thank  thee.  Lord,  for  this  spark  of  grace  ;   and  we 

ask  thee  to  water  it. 

18.  The  little  church  at  Jones ville  is  once  more  tossed  upon 

the  waves,  a  sheep  without  a  shepherd. 


96  '  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES   OF  PIGUKES. 

(a)  Point  out  and  name  the  Figures. 

(b)  Select  all  the  Similes,  Metaphors,  etc. 

1.  He  that  would  govern  others  must  first  be  master  of 

himself. 

2.  Tread  softly  and  speak  low  ; 

For  the  old  year  lies  a-dying.  Tennyson. 

3.  Blue  were  her  ej'es  as  the  fairy  flax.  Longfellow. 

4.  Stars  of  the  summer  night! 
Far  in  yon  azure  deeps 

Hide,  hide  your  golden  light !  Longfellow. 

5.  So  even  ran  his  line  of  life, 

The  neighbors  thought  it  odd.  Saxe. 

6.  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll !        Byron.^ 

7.  Earth  which  seemed  to  the  fathers  meant 
But  as  a  pilgrim's  wayside  tent,  — 

A  nightly  shelter  to  fold  away 

When  the  Lord  shall  call  at  break  of  day.  Whittier. 

8.  To  arms  !  they  come  !  the  Greek  !  the  Greek  !    Halleck. 

9.  A  Gourd  wound  itself  around  a  lofty  Palm,  and  in 
a  few  days  climbed  to  its  very  top.  "  How  old  may'st 
thou  be?"  asked  the  new-comer.  "About  a  hundred 
years."  "About  a  hundred  ^ears,  and  no  taller  !  Only 
see  !  I  have  grown  as  tall  as  you  iu  fewer  days  than 
you  can  count  years." 

"  I  know  that  very  well,"  replied  the  Palm.  "  Every 
summer  of  my  life  a  gourd  has  climbed  up  around  me, 
as  proud  as  thou  art,  and  as  short-lived  as  thou  wilt  be  !  " 

10.        Everyman  has  in  himself  a  continent  of  undiscovered 
character.    Happy  is  he  who  acts  the  Columbus  to  his      * 
own  soul !  Ste2)he)t , 


FIGURES.  97 

1 1 .  Green  be  the  turf  above  thee, 
Friend  of  my  better  days. 
None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee, 

None  named  thee  but  to  praise.  Halleck. 

12.  Realh',  Mr.  President,  I  am  delighted  with  the  honor- 
able gentleman's  mode  of  speaking  extempore.  I  like 
his  speeches  a  great  deal  better  without  his  notes  than 
with  tliem.  lie  has  this  day  thrown  all  ancient  and 
modern  orators  into  the  shade. 

13.  Every  young  man  is  now  a  sower  of  seed  on  the  field 
of  life.  These  bright  days  of  youth  are  the  seed-time. 
Every  thought  of  your  intellect,  every  emotion  of  ^-our 
heart,  every  word  of  30ur  tongue,  every  principle  you 
adopt,  every  act  you  perform,  is  a  seed,  whose  good  or 
evil  fruit  will  be  the  bliss  or  bane  of  your  after-life.  Wise. 

14.  The  many  make  the  household, 

But  only  one  the  home.  Lon-ell, 

15.  And  the  nations,  rising  up,  their  sorry 

And  foolish  sins  shall  put  away. 

As  children  their  toys  when  the  teacher  enters. 

Mrs.  Brovmmg 

16.  And  thrice  the  Saxon  blade  drank  blood.  .  Scott. 

17.  What  I  spent  I  had  ; 
What  I  kept  I  lost ; 
What  I  gave  I  have. 

18.  He  raised  a  mortal  to  the  skies ; 

She  drew  an  angel  down..  Dryden. 

19.  From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among, 

Leaps  the  live  tlumder.  Byron. 

■20.    Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much  ; 

Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more.  Coivper. 


98  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

21.  Like  the  baseless  fabric  of  tliis  vision, 

The  cloud-capt  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces, 

The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself, 

AYith  all  that  it  inherits,  shall  dissolve. 

And  like  this  unsubstantial  pageant  faded. 

Leave  not  a  rack  behind.  Shakespeare 

22.  Tlie  south  wind  searches  for  the  flowers 
Whose  fragrance  late  he  bore  ; 

And  sighs  to  find  them  in  the  woocj  -i  " 

And  by  the  stream  no  more.        '"  £  'y-l  Bryant. 

23.  A  great  many  children  get  on  the  wrong  track  because 

the  switch  is  misplaced. 

24.  He  worked  hard  to  keep  the  wolf  from  the  door. 

25.  I  found  her  on  the  floor, 

In  all  the  storm  of  grief,  yet  beautiful, 

Poui'ing  forth  tears  at  such  a  lavish  rate. 

That  were  the  world  on  fire,  they  might  have  drowned 

The  wrath  of  heaven,  and  quenched  the  mighty  ruin.  Lee. 

26.  A  mind  for  thoughts  to  pass  into, 
A  lieart  for  loves  to  travel  through. 
Five  senses  to  detect  things  near,  — 

Is  this  the  whole  that  we  are  here?  Clough. 

27.  Some  are  too. foolish  to  commit  follies. 

28.  Ye  crags  and  peaks,  I'm  with  you  once  again  !  Knowles. 

29.  And  like  the  wings  of  sea-birds 

Flash  the  white-caps  of  the  sea.  Longfelloiv. 

30.  No  pain,  no  pahn  ;  no  thorns,  no  throne  ;  no  gall,  no 

glorj' ;  no  cross,  no  crown.  William  Penn. 

31.  Thou  art  a  female.  Katydid  ! 

I  know  it  by  the  trill  -  i 

That  quivers  through  thv  piercing  notes.  Holmes. 

32.  Give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death  !  Patrick  Henry. 


FIGURES.  99 

33.  Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 
Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure  ; 
Nor  Grandeur  hear  with  a  disdainful  smile 

The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor.  Gray. 

34.  Gavest  thou  the  goodly  wings  unto  the  peacocks?  or 
wings  and  featliers  unto  the  ostrich?  Job  xxxix.  13. 

35.  To  see  Niagara,  you  buy  eleven  silk  dresses  for  your 
wife,  and  six  shirts  for  yourself.  You  then  get  all  the 
ready  money  you  have,  l;>orrow  all  your  friends  haA'e, 
and  make  arrangements  for  unlimited  credit  at  two  or 
three  good  solvent  banks.  You  then  take  six  trunks, 
some  more  mone}-,  a  nurse,  a  colored  servant,  some 
more  money,  and  then,  after  getting  some  more  money 
and  extending  yonv  credit  at  one  or  two  strong  banks 
besides,  j^ou  set  out.  It  is  better,  if  possible,  just  be- 
fore you  start,  to  mortgage  your  homestead,  and  get 
some  more  money. 

36.  Glory  is  like  a  circle  in  the  water 
Which  never  ceaseth  to  enlarge  itself 

Till  by  broad  spreading  it  disperse  to  naught.  Shakespeare. 

37.  Wit  is  a  dangerous  weapon.  Montaigne. 

38.  Experience  is  a  hard  teacher.  ' ' 

39.  The  sufficiency  of  my  merit  is  to  know  that  my  merit  is 

not  sufficient.  .  aS'^.  Augustine. 

40.  Not  he  that  repeateth  the  name, 

But  he  that  doeth  the  will.  Longfellotv. 

41.  Her  commerce  whitens  every  sea. 

42.  There  were  tones  in  the  voice  that  whispered  then 
You  may  hear  to-day  in  a  hundred  men.  Holmes. 

43.  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall, 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath, 


100  '  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Aud  stars  to  set  —  but  all, 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death ! 

Mrs.  Hemans. 

44.  A  hunimiug-bird  met  a  butterfly,  aud  being  pleased 
«]\ivith  the  beauty  of  his  person  and  the  glory  of  liis  wings, 

made  an  offer  of  perpetual  friendship. 

"  I  cannot  think  of  it,"  was  the  reply,  "  as  you  ouce 
spurned  me  and  called  me  a  drawling  dolt." 

"Impossible!"  exclaimed  the  hummiug-bird.  "I  al- 
ways had  the  highest  respect  for  such  beautiful  creatures 
as  you." 

"  Perhaps  you  have  now,"  said  the  other  ;  "  but  when 
you  insulted  me,  I  Avas  a  caterpillar.  So  let  me  give 
you  a  piece  of  advice.  Never  insult  the  humble,  as 
they  may  some  day  become  your  superiors." 

45.  Presence  of  mind  is  greatly  promoted  by  absence  of  body. 

40.  The  voices  of  the  Present  say,  "  Come  !  "  But  the 
voices  of  the  Past  say,  "  Wait !"  Longfelloiv. 

47.  A  year  has  gone,  as  the  tortoise  goes. 

Heavy  and  slow.  Wliittier. 

48.  The  billows  of  the  organ  roared  among  the  clustered 
columns,  as  the  sea  breaks  amidst  the  basaltic  pillars 
which  crowd  the  stormy  cavern  of  the  Hebrides.  Holmes. 

49.  How  sweet  it  was  to  draw  near  my  own  home  after 
living  homeless  in  the  world  so  long  !    '  Hawthorne. 

50.  Weariness 

Can  snore  upon  the  flint,  when  resty  sloth 

Finds  the  down-pillow  hard.      .  ShcLkespeare. 

51.  Henry  went  over  to  the  nation;  Mr.  Lincoln  has 
steadily  drawn  the  nation  over  to  him.  One  left  a 
united  France  ;  the  other,  we  hope  and  believe,  a  re- 
united America.  LoiceU. 


FIGURES.  101 

.)2.    Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 

Which  like  the  toad,  ugly  aud  veuomous, 

Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head.        Shakespeare. 

53.  I  talk,  half  the  time,  to  find  out  my  own  thoughts,  as 
a  schoolboy  turns  his  pockets  inside  out  to  see  what  is 
in  them.  Holmes. 

54 .  Thy  w^ord  is  a  lamp  unto  my  feet,  and  a  light  unto 
mv  path.  Psalms  cxix.  105. 

55.  We  have  complained;  we  have  petitioned;  we  have 
entreated ;  we  have  supplicated ;  we  have  even  pros- 
trated ourselves  at  the  foot  of  the  throne,  without  mov- 
ing royal  clemency. 

56.  Ere  long  he  reached  the  magnificent  glacier  of  the 
Rhone  ;  a  frozen  cataract  more  than  two  thousand  feet 
in  height,  and  manv  miles  broad  at  its  base.  It  fills 
the  whole  valley  between  two  mountains,  running  back 
to  their  summits.  At  the  base  it  is  arched,  like  a  dome, 
and  above,  iagged  and  rouo;h,  and  resembles  a  mass  of 
gigantic  crystals  of  a  pale  emerald  tint,  mingled  with 
white.  A  snowy  crust  covers  its  surface  ;  but  at  every 
rent  and  crevice  the  pale-green  ice  shines  clear  in  the 
sun.  Its  shape  is  that  of  a  glove,  lying  with  the  palms 
downwards,  and  the  fingers  crooked  and  close  together. 
It  is  a  gauntlet  of  ice,  which,  centuries  ago,  Winter,  the 
king  of  these  mountains,  threw  down  in  defiance  to  the 
Sun:  and  year  by  year  the  Sun  strives  in  vain  to  lift  it  from 
the  ground  on  the  point  of  his  glittering  spear.  Longfellow. 

57.  I  have  seen 

A  curious  child,  who  dwelt  upon  a  tract 
Of  inland  ground,  applying  to  his  ear 
The  convolutions  of  a  smooth-lipped  shell, 
To  which,  in  silence  hushed,  his  very  soul 


102  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Listened  intensely  :  and  his  countenance  soon 

Brightened  with  joy  ;  for,  murmuring  from  witliin, 

Were  heard  sonorous  cadences,  whereby, 

To  his  belief  the  monitor  expressed 

Mysterious  union  with  its  native  sea. 

Even  such  a  shell  the  universe  itself 

Is  to  the  ear  of  Faith.  Wordsioorth. 

58.  How  poor,  how  rich,  how  abject,  how  august. 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful  is  man  ! 

How  passing  wonder  He  who  made  him  such!  Shakespeare. 

59 .  Oh  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness  !  Cowper. 

60.  The  wind  grumbled  and  made  itself  miserable  all 
last  night,  and  this  morning  it  is  still  howling  as  ill- 
naturedly  as  ever,  and  roaring  and  rumbling  in  the 
chimneys.  Hawthorne. 

61.  Oh  !  a  wonderful  stream  is  the  river  Time.  Taylor. 

62.  Nobody  knew  how  the  fisherman  brown, 
With  a  look  of  despair  that  was  half  a  frown, 
Faced  his  fate  on  that  furious  night. 

Faced  the  mad  billows  with  hunger  white, 

Just  within  hail  of  a  beacon  light 

That  shone  on  a  woman  fair  and  trim, 

Waiting  for  him.  Lucy  Larcom. 

63.  And  the  cares  that  infest  the  day 
Shall  fold  their  tents  like  the  Arabs, 

And  as  silently  steal  away,    (jj.-v^.  LongfeUoiv. 

64.  Our  fathers' God  !  from  out  whose  hand 
The  centuries  fall  like  grains  of  sand, 
We  meet  to-day,  united,  free, 

And  loyal  to  our  land  and  Thee, 
To  thank  Thee  for  the  era  done, 
And  trust  Thee  for  the  opening  one.  Whittier. 


FIGURES.  103 

6.").  "Were  I  Midas,  1  would  make  nothiug  else  but  just 
such  golden  days  as  these,  over  and  over  again,  all  the 
year  throughout.  My  best  thoughts  always  come  a  lit- 
tle too  late.  Why  did  I  not  tell  you  how  old  King 
Midas  came  to  America  and  changed  the  dusky  autumn, 
such  as  it  is  in  other  countries,  into  the  burnished 
beauty  which  it  here  puts  on?  He  gilded  the  leaves  of 
the  great  volume  of  Nature.  Haivlhorne. 

(SO.    Regular  as  pulse's  rise  and  fall 

Boomed  the  long  echo  of  the  breaking  seas. 

07.    Live  well  —  Die  never  ; 

Die  well  —  Live  forever.  Old  Epitaph. 

G8.    I  remember,  I  remember, 

How  my  childhood  fleeted  by  ; 

The  mirth  of  its  December, 

And  the  warmth  of  its  July.  Hood. 

69.  O  wad  some  power  the  giftie  gie  us, 

To  see  oursels  as  ithers  see  us  !  Burns. 

70.  Everything  came  to  him  marked  by  Nature,  Right  side 
up  with  care,  and  he  ke^jt  it  so.  The  world  to  him,  as 
to  all  of  us,  was  like  a  medal,  on  the  obverse  of  which 
is  stamped  the  image  of  Jo}',  and  on  the  reverse  that  of 

Care.     S never  took  the  foolish  pains  to  look  at  that 

other  side,  even  if  he  knew  of  its  existence.  Lowell. 

71.  A  wise  man  is  never  less  alone  than  when  he  is  alone. 

72.  Put  not  your  trust  in  money,  but  put  your  mone}"  in 

trust. 

73.  He  stood  firm  at  his  post. 

74.  Like  a  spear  of  flame  the  cardinal  flower 
Burned  out  along  the  meadow.     , 


104  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

75.  Time  is  the  warp  of  life. 

Oh,  tell  the  young,  the  gay,  the  fair^, 

To  weave  it  well !      /.^  ka^P^-  Marsden. 

76.  Now  came  still  Evening  on,  and  Twilight  gray 

Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad.  Milton. 

77.  Quoth  David  to  Daniel,  "  Why  is  it  these  scholars 

Abuse  one  another  whenever  they  speak  ?  " 

Quoth  Daniel  to  David,  "  It  nat-rally  follers 

Folks  come  to  hard  ivords  if  they  meddle  with  Greek !  " 

Saxe. 

78.  In  '93,  he  landed  in  Boston,  then  the  front-door  of 
America.  Loivell. 

79.  Rich  gift  of  God  !     A  year  of  time  ! 
What  pomp  of  rise  and  shut  of  day. 
What  hues  wherewith  our  Northern  clime 
Makes  autumn's  dropping  woodlands  gay, 
What  airs  out-blown  from  ferny  dells, 
And  clover-bloom  and  sweetbrier  smells, 

What  songs    of    brooks    and    birds,    what   fruits    and 

flowers, 
Green  woods  and  moon-lit  snows,  have  in  its  round  been 

ours !  Whittier. 

80.  Law  is  like  a  contra-dance  :  people  are  led  up  and 
down  in  it  until  they  are  tired.  Law  is  like  a  book  of 
surgery  :  there  are  a  great  many  desperate  cases  in  it. 
Law  is  like  physic :  they  that  take  the  least  of  it  are  the 
best  off.  Law  is  like  a  new  fashion  :  people  are  be- 
witched to  get  into  it.  Law  is  like  bad  weather :  most 
people  are  glad  when  they  get  out  of  it.  Law  is  law  : 
and  as  in  such  and  so  foi'th,  hereby  and  wlierebv,  and 
aforesaid,  provided  always,  nevertheless,  notwithstand- 
ing, wlierefore,  whichsoever,  and  whereas. 


FIGURES.  105"' 

SI.    How  sleep  the  brave  who  sink  to  rest 
By  all  their  country's  wishes  blest ! 

****** 
By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung  ; 
By  forms  unseen  their  dirge  is  sung ; 
There  Honor  conies,  a  pilgrim  gray, 
To  bless  the  turf  that  wraps  their  clay ; 
And  Freedom  shall  awhile  repair, 
To  dwell  a  weeping  hermit  there.  Collins. 

82.  Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sunset  were  seen  ; 
Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  autumn  hath  blown, 
That  host  on  the  morrow  lay  withered  and  strown.  Byron. 

83.  Contentment  is  a  pearl  of  great  price.  Balguy. 

84.  The  temperate  are  the  most  truly  luxurious. 

85.  Better  a  death  when  work  is  done,  than  earth's  most 

favored  birth  ; 
Better  a  child  in  God's  great  house,  than  the  king  of  all 
the  earth  !  Macdonalcl. 

86.  Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright. 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky. 

The  dews  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night, 

For  thou  must  die.  Herbert. 

87.  Our  very  hopes  belied  our  fears, 
%      Our  fears  our  hopes  belied  ; 

"We  thought  her  dying  when  she  slept, 

And  sleeping  when  she  died.  Hood. 

88.  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread,  till  thou 
return  unto  the  ground  ;  for  out  of  it  wast  thou  taken : 
for  dust  thou  art,  and  unto  dust  shalt  thou  return. 

Gen.  iii.  19, 


-x 


106  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

89.  He  may  live  without  books,  —  what  is  knowledge  but 

grieviug?  ' 

He  may  live  without  hope,  —  what  is  hope  but  deceiving? 
He  may  live  without  love,  —  what  is  passion  but  pining? 
But  where  is  the  man  who  can  live  without  dining? 

Otven  Meredith. 

90.  The  inventions  of  paper  and  the  press  have  put  an 
end  to  all  these  restraints  ;  they  have  made  every  one  a 
writer,  and  enabled  every  mind  to  pour  itself  into  print, 
and  diffuse  itself  over  the  whole  intellectual  world.  The 
consequences  are  alarming.  The  stream  of  literature 
has  swollen  into  a  torrent,  augmented  into  a  river,  ex- 
panded into  a  sea.  Irving. 

91.  Life,  we've  been  long  together, 

Through  pleasant  and  through  cloudy  weather. 

'Tis  hard  to  part  when  friends  are  dear  ; 

Perhaps  'twill  cost  a  sigh,  a  tear ; 

Then  steal  away,  give  little  warning ; 

Choose  thine  own  time  ; 

Say  not  "•  good-night," 

But  in  some  brighter  clime 

Bid  me,  "  good-morning  !  "  3Irs.  Barhauld. 

\)2.    The  Night  is  mother  of  the  Day, 
The  Winter  of  the  Spring, 
And  ever  upon  old  Decay 

The  greenest  mosses  cling.  ^ 

Behind  the  cloud  the  starlight  lurks. 
Through  showers  the  sunbeams  fall ;      )  ^  v^ 
For  God,  who  loveth  all  his  works, 
Has  left  his  Hope  with  all !  Whittier. 

93.    How  beautiful  is  youth  I  how  bright  it  gleams 
With  its  illusions,  aspirations,  dreams  ! 


FIGURES.  107 

Book  of  Beginnings,  Story  witliont  End, 

Each  maid  a  heroine,  and  each  man  a  friend  !  Longfellow. 

94.  There  were  two  or  three  pretty  faces  among  the  fe- 
male singers,  to  which  the  keen  air  of  a  frosty  morning 
had  given  a  bright  rosy  tint :  but  the  gentlemen  clioris- 
ters  had  evidently  been  chosen,  like  old  Cremona  fiddles, 
more  for  tone  than  looks  ;  and  as  several  had  to  sing 
from  the  same  book,  there  were  clusterings  of  odd  phy- 
siognomies, not  unlike  those  groups  of  cherubs  we  some- 
times see  on  country  tombstones.  Irving. 

95.  Others  shall  sing  the  song. 
Others  shall  right  the  wrong ; 
Finish  what  I  begin, 

And  all  I  fail  of  win. 

"What  matter,  I  or  they? 
Mine  or  another's  day, 

So  the  right  word  be  said  i- '         j^,. 

And  life  the  sweeter  made  ?  — y-^^^  uA/vr    ■'     'Whittier. 

96.  Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land? 

Whose  heart  hath  ne'er  within  him  burn'd, 

As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turn'd?  Scott. 

97.  ©  summer  day  beside  the  joyous  sea  ! 
O  summer  day  so  wonderful  and  white. 
So  full  of  gladness  and  so  full  of  pain ! 
Forever  and  forever  shalt  thou  be 

To  some  the  gravestone  of  a  dead  delight. 

To  some  the  landmark  of  a  new  domain.        Longfellow. 

98.  The  reader  must  not,  from  any  testimony  of  mine, 
contract  a  dislike  toward  our  slumberous  stream.  In 
the  light  of  a  calm  and  golden  sunset  it  becomes  lovely 


108  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

be3-ond  expression  ;  the  more  lovely  for  the  quietude 
that  so  well  accords  with  the  hour,  when  even  the 
wind,  after  blustering  all  day,  usually  hushes  itself  to 
rest.  Each  tree  and  rock,  and  every  blade  of  grass, 
is  distinctly  imaged,  and  however  unsightly  in  reality, 
assumes  ideal  beauty  in  the  reflection.  .  .  .  All  the 
sky  glows  downward  at  our  feet ;  the  rich  clouds  float 
through  the  unruffled  bosom  of  the  stream  like  heavenly 
thoughts  through  a  peaceful  heart.  AYe  will  not,  then, 
malign  our  river  as  gross  and  impure  while  it  can 
glorify  itself  with  so  adequate  a  picture  of  the  heaven 
that  broods  above  it ;  or,  if  we  remember  its  tawny 
hue  and  the  muddiness  of  its  bed,  let  it  be  a  s^-mbol 
that  the  earthliest  human  soul  has  an  infinite  spiritual 
capacity  and  may  contain  the  better  world  within  its 
depths.  Ilinrthorne. 

99.  "No  more!"  Oh,  how  majestically  mournful  are 
those  words  !  They  sound  like  the  roar  of  the  wind 
through  a  forest  of  pines.  Longfellow. 

100.  Life  is  a  leaf  of  paper  white. 
Whereon  each  one  of  us  may  write 

His  word  or  two,  and  then  comes  night.  Lowell.- 

101.  When  can  their  glory  fade? 

Oh,  the  wild  charge  the}^  made  !  ^ 

All  the  world  wondered. 

Honor  the  charge  they  made  ! 

Honor  the  Light  Brigade,  — 

Noble  six  hundred  !  Tennyson. 

102.  He  who  thinks  his  place  below  him  will  certainly  l)e 
below  his  place.  Saville. 

103.  A  day  —  an   hour — of  virtuous  liberty  is  worth  a, 
whole  eternity  in  bondage, 


FIGURES.  100 

101.    li  will  briug  bis  gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave. 

lOo.    Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again  ; 
The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers  : 
But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  with  pain, 
And  dies  among  her  worshipers.  Brijant. 

lOG.    My  own  self-pity,  like  the  redbreast  bird. 

Flies  back  to  cover  all  that  past  with  leaves. 

2Irs.  Brownimj. 

107.  Maiden,  that  read'st  this  simple  rhyme. 
Enjoy  thy  youth,  it  will  not  stay  ; 
Enjoy  the  fragrance  of  thy  prime, 

For  oh,  it  is  not  always  May  ! 

Enjoy  the  Spring  of  Love  and  Youth, 

To  some  good  angel  leave  the  rest ; 

For  Time  will  teach  thee  soon  the  truth. 

There  are  no  birds  in  last  year's  nest !  Longfelloiv. 

108.  Recollect  that  while  dwelling  with  the  fond  garrulity 
of  age  over  these  faiiy  scenes,  endeared  to  thee  by 
the  recollections  of  thy  youth,  and  the  charms  of  a 
thousand  legendary  tales  which  beguiled  the  simple 
ear  of  thy  childhood  ;  recollect  that  thou  art  trifling 
with  those  fleeting  moments  which  should  be  devoted 
to  loftier  things.  Is  not  Time  —  relentless  Time  — 
shaking,  with  palsied  hand,  his  almost  exhausted  hour- 
glass before  thee?  Irviny. 


» 


10!).  It  [the  old  garret]  has  a  flooring  of  laths  with  ridges 
of  mortar  squeezed  up  between  them,  which,  if  you 
tread  on,  you  will  go  to  —  the  Lord  have  mercy  upon 
you  !  where  will  you  go  to  ?  —  the  same  being  crossed 
by  narrow  bridges  of  boards,  on  which  you  mav  put 
your  feet,  but  with  fear  and  trembling.  Holmes. 


110  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

110.  Still  sits  the  schoolhouse  by  the  road, 

A  ragged  beggar  suuuiug.  Whittier. 

111.  They  have  Moses  and  the  prophets  ;  let  them  hear 
them.  Luke  xvi.  29. 

112.  Ring  out  the  thousaud  wars  of  old, 

Ring  in  the  thousand  years  of  peace.  Tennyson. 

113.  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  1  give 
my  hand  and  heart  to  this  vote.  Webster. 

114.  Marbles  forget  their  message  to  mankind.  Holmes. 

115.  AVho  does  not  know  the  tale  as  told  in  the  magic 
page  of  Shakespeare?  Irving. 

116.  I  cannot  help  being  glad  that  our  foolish  Pandora 
peeped  into  the  box.  No  doubt  —  no  doubt  —  the 
Troubles  are  still  flying  about  the  world,  and  have 
increased  in  multitude,  rather  than  lessened,  and  are  a 
very  ugly  set  of  imps,  and  carry  most  venomous  stings 
in  their  tails.  I  have  felt  them  already,  and  expect  to 
feel  them  more,  as  I  grow  older.  But  then,  that  lovely 
and  lightsome  little  figure  of  Hope  !  What  in  the  world 
could  we  do  without  her  ?  Hope  spiritualizes  the  earth  ; 
Hope  makes  it  always  new  ;  and,  even  in  the  earth's 
best  and  brightest  aspect,  Hope  shows  it  to  be  only  the 
shadow  of  an  infinite  bliss  hereafter.  Haiothorne. 

1 17.  Humble  we  must  be,  if  to  heaven  we  go  ; 

Hio;h  is  the  roof  there,  but  the  gate  is  low.       Herrick. 

118.  "  Fly  pride,"  says  the  peacock. 

119.  Precept  is  instruction  written  in  the  sand.  The 
tide  flows  over  it,  and  the  record  is  gone.  P^xample 
is  engraved  upon  the  rock.  Channing, 

120.  Oh  !  what  a  glory  doth  this  world  put  on, 
For  him  who,  with  a  fervent  heart,  goes  forth 


FIGURES. 


Ill 


Under  tlic  britiht  ami  "iorioiis  skv,  a.nd  looks 
Ou  duties  well  performed  uud  days  well  spent  I 

Longfellow. 
121.    How  the  mountains  talked  together, 
Looking  down  upon  the  weather, 
AVhen  they  heard  our  friend  had  planned  his 
Little  trip  among  the  Andes  ! 
How  they'll  bare  their  snowy  scalps 
To  the  climber  of  the  Alps, 
When  the  cry  goes  through  their  passes, 
"  Here  comes  the  great  Agassiz  !  " 
"  Yes,  I'm  tall,"  says  Chimborazo, 
''  But  I'll  wait  for  him  to  say  so,  — 
That's  the  oul}'  thing  that  lacks,  —  he 
Must  see  me,  Cotopaxi !  " 
"  Ay  !  ay  !  "  the  fire-peak  thunders, 
"  And  he  must  view  my  wonders  ! 
I'm  but  a  lonel}'  crater 
Till  I  have  him  for  spectator."  Holmes. 


122.    O  earth,  so  full  of  dreary  noises  ! 

O  men,  with  wailing  in  your  voices ! 
O  delved  gold,  the  waller's  heap  ! 
O  strife,  O  curse,  that  o'er  it  fall ! 
God  strikes  a  silence  through  you  all, 
And  "  giveth  His  beloved,  sleep." 


Mrs.  Browning. 


123.  How  arc  the  mighty  fallen  in  the  midst  of  the  battle  ! 
O  Jonathan,  thou  wast  slain  in  thine  high  places.  I 
am  distressed  for  thee,  my  bi'other  Jonathan :  very 
pleasant  hast  thou  been  unto  me  :  thy  love  to  me  was 
wonderful,  passing  the  love  of  women.  How  are  the 
mighty  fallen,  and  the  weapons  of  war  perished ! 

11.  Sam.  i.  25-27. 


112  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

124.  The  waters  slept.     Night's  silvery  veil  hung  low 
On  Jordan's  bosom,  and  the  eddies  curled 
Their  glassy  rings  beneath  it,  like  the  still, 
Unbroken  beating  of  the  sleeper's  pulse. 

The  reeds  bent  down  the  stream  ;  the  willow  leaves. 

With  a  soft  cheek  upon  the  lulling  tide, 

Forgot  the  lifting  winds  ;  and  the  long  stems, 

Whose  flowers  the  water,  like  a  gentle  nurse, 

Bears  on  its  bosom,  quietly  gave  way. 

And  leaned,  in  graceful  attitudes,  to  rest. 

How  strikingly  the  course  of  nature  tells, 

By  its  light  heed  of  human  suffering. 

That  it  was  fashioned  for  a  happier  world  !  Willis. 

125.  Is  it  peace  or  war?  better  war  !  loud  war  by  land  and 

by  sea, 
War  with  a  thousand  battles,  and  shaking  a  hundred 
thrones.  Tennyson. 

126.  Every  man  would  live  long,  but  no  man  would  be  old. 

127.  Out  on  the  hills  in  mild  spring  weather. 
So  early  only  the  blue-birds  knew. 
Thousands  of  little  flowers  grew  together. 
Purple  and  pink  and  white  and  blue. 

While  the  March  storm  raged  and  fretted  and  wept, 

And  froze  its  song  in  the  blue-bird's  throat, 

'Neath  mottled  leaf  blankets  they  soundly  slept. 

Close  wrapped  in  their  soft  fur  overcoats. 

3frs.  J.  S.  Bayne. 

128.  I  see  the  pyramids  building  ;  I  hear  the  shoutings  of 
the  army  of  Alexander  ;  I  feel  the  ground  shake  beneath 
the  march  of  Cambyses.  I  sit  as  in  a  theatre,  —  the 
stage  is  time,  the  play  is  the  world.  Alex.  Smith. 

129.  Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash.  Shakesjyeare. 


FIGURES.  113 

130.  "  But,  Mr.  Speaker,  we  have  a  right  to  tax  Amer- 
ica." Oh,  inestimable  right!  Oh,  wonderful,  trans- 
cendent right !  the  assertion  of  which  has  cost  this 
country'  thirteen  provinces,  six  islands,  one  hundred 
thousand  lives,  and  seventy  millions  of  money.    Burke. 

131.  Yet  in  herself  she  dwelleth  not, 
Although  no  home  were  half  so  fair ; 
No  simplest  duty  is  forgot, 

Life  hath  no  dim  and  lowly  spot 

That  doth  not  in  lier  sunshine  share.  Loivell. 

132.  Lee  marched  over  the  mountain  wall,  — 
Over  the  mountains  winding  down. 

Horse  and  foot,  into  Frederick  town.  Whittier. 

133.  There  was  a  sound  of  revehy  bj'  night, 
And  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered  then 
Her  beauty  and  her  chivahy,  and  bright 

The  lamps  shone  o'er  fair  women  and  brave  men.  Byron. 

134.  This  makes  the  character  complete.  Whatsoever 
things  are  false,  whatsoever  things  are  dishonest,  vfhat- 
soever  things  are  unjust,  whatsoever  things  are  impure, 
whatsoever  things  are  hateful,  whatsoever  things  are 
of  evil  report  —  if  there  be  any  vice,  and  if  there  be 
any  infam}^,  all  these  things  we  know  were  blended  in 
Bar^re.     Macmday.    [Com})are  with  Philippians  iv.  <S.] 

1. ■'."».    Two  of  the  fairest  stars  in  all  the  heaven, 
Having  some  business,  do  entreat  her  eyes 
To  twinkle  in  their  spheres  till  the}'  return. 
What  if  her  e^-es  were  there,  thev  in  her  head, 
The  brightness  of  her  cheek  would  shame  those  stars, 
As  dayliglit  doth  a  lamp  ;  her  eye  in  heaven 
Would  throuoh  the  airy  region  sti'eara  so  bright, 
Tliat  birds  would  sing,  and  think  it  were  nf)t  night. 

Sihf ike  spectre. 


114  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

loG.    Sceptre  and  crown 
Must  tumble  clown, 
And  in  the  dust  be  equal  made 
With  the  poor  crooked  scythe  and  spade.  Shirley. 

137.  As  he  walked,  his  eyes  were  on  the  ground. 

138.  His  death,  which  happened  in  his  berth. 
At  forty-odd  befell ; 

They  went  and  told  the  sexton,  and 

The  sexton  tolled  the  bell.  Hood. 

139.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters.    L 

140.  I  speak  within  bounds  when  I  say  that  the  British 
traveler  is  not  exceptionally  noted,  in  any  part  of  the 
world,  for  the  gentle  humility  with  which  he  submits 
to  the  extortions  and  other  disagreeable  things  incident 
to  a  tourist's  life. 

141.  And  it  bubbles  and  seethes,  and  it  hisses  and  roars. 
As  when  fire  is  with  water  commix' d  and  contending. 
And  the  spray  of  its  wrath  to  the  welkin  up-soars. 
And  flood  upon  flood  hurries  on,  never  ending. 

ScJiiller.    [Descritition  of  a  wliirlpool.] 

142.  Better  not  be  at  all 

Than  not  he  noble.  Tennyson. 

143.  Alas  !  for  the  rarity 
Of  Christian  charity 

Under  the  sun  !  Hood. 

144.  They  are  poor 

That  have  lost  nothing  :  they  are  poorer  far 

Who,  losing,  have  forgotten  :  they  most  poor 

Of  all,  who  lose  and  wish  they  might  forget. 

Jean  Ingeloic. 

145.  The  night  is  calm  and  cloudless, 

And  still  as  still  can  be. 


FIGURES.  115 

Ami  the  stars  come  forth  to  listen 

To  the  music  of  the  sea. 

They  gather  and  gather  and  gather, 

Until  they  crowd  the  sky, 

And  listen,  in  breathless  silence, 

To  the  solemn  litany.  Longfellow. 

UG.    Why  is  dust  and  ashes  proud? 

147.  Books  are  tlie  legacies  that  genius  leaves  to  mankind. 

148.  Leafless  are  the  trees  ;  their  purple  branches 
Spread  themselves  abroad,  like  reefs  of  coral, 

Rising  silent 
In  the  Red  Sea  of  the  winter  sunset.  LonqfeUon- . 


149.    Like  warp  and  woof  all  destinies 
Are  woven  fast, 
Linked  in  sympatliy  like  the  keys 
Of  an  organ  vast. 

Pluck  one  thread,  and  the  web  ye  mar  ; 

Break  but  one 
Of  a  thousand  keys,  and  the  paining  jar 

Through  all  will  run.  Whittier. 

loO.  A  Streamlet  started  forth  from  a  spring  in  the  side 
of  a  mountain,  and,  after  an  infancy  of  gay  leaps  in 
bright  cascades,  spread  out  into  a  more  quiet  and 
steady  movement.  It  began  then  to  dream  and  medi- 
tate on  the  object  for  which  it  existed.  While  in  this 
grave  mood  a  Will-o'-wisp  darted  out  and  danced  over 
its  waters. 

"Ah,"  cried  the  Streamlet,  "this  is  a  heavenly 
light  sent  to  tell  me  what  I  wish  to  know,  and  to  guide 
mv  course." 


116  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

But  the  Will-o'-wisp  soou  flitted  away  and  vanished, 
leaving  the  Streamlet  more  perplexed  than  before.  Its 
first  creed  was  gone.  Then  a  rosy  cloud  floated  in  the 
sky  and  mirrored  itself  in  the  bosom  of  the  Stream. 

"  This,"  it  cried,  "  is  a  token  of  Paradise  !  " 

But  a  wind  ruffled  the  water,  and  the  tinted  cloud 
was  mirrored  no  more  ;  and  when  the  Streamlet  be- 
came still  again,  the  rosy  cloud  had  passed  from  the 
sky.     Then  a  water-lily  expanded  on  its  waves. 

"Behold!"  said  the  Streamlet;  "to  nourish  this 
beauty  is  the  end  and  aim  of  my  life." 

But  the  lily  presently  folded  up  and  perished.  The 
Streamlet  moved  on.  Presently  it  came  to  a  spot 
where  men  had  thrown  hard  stones  in  its  way,  ob- 
structed its  course,  turned  it  aside  through  a  narrow 
channel  and  forced  it  to  rush  in  a  confused  perilous 
way  over  a  wheel. 

"  Alas  !"  cried  the  Streamlet;  "is  it  then  for  this 
agony  I  was  born  ?  " 

But  after  some  wild  splashes  the  Streamlet  found 
itself  at  peace  again  and  went  on  widening.  And  now  a 
glorious  moon  came  out  and  showered  gold  all  over  it. 

"  How  wealthy  I  am  !  "  cried  the  Streamlet. 

The  moon  waned.  But  the  stars  came  out,  and  the 
ripples  caught  them  as  ])right  marvels ;  they  hinted 
deeper,  steadier  glories  yet  to  be  revealed.  But  the 
stars  set. 

At  length  a  Poet  reclined  on  its  bank  and  sang  to  it : 

"  Sweet  Streamlet!  AVhat  a  bright  life  must  have 
been  yours  !  What  flowers  must  have  fringed  your 
gliding  way,  what  rosy  clouds  you  have  reflected,  what 
lilies  you  have  nourished,  what  stars  have  risen  to 
tell  you  their  secrets  ere  they  have  set !  You  have 
done  brave  work,  too.     You  have  watered  the  meadow 


FIGURES.  117 

and  made  it  wave  with  grain  ;  yon  have  conspired 
with  the  snn  to  ripen  tlie  harvest,  and  when  matured 
you  have  helped  to  turn  it  into  bread.  Not  for  any 
one  of  these  joys  and  uses  were  you  made,  but  for  all ! 
So  may  the  stream  of  my  life  run  on,  with  varied 
happiness  and  helpfulness,  not  anxious  about  the  un- 
known Sea  to  which  thou  and  I,  fair  stream,  are  tend- 
ing." 

As  the  Streamlet  listened,  all  the  beauties  it  had 
known  shone  out  again,  and  they  all  clustered  — 
dancing  light,  ros}'  cloud,  golden  moon  and  serene 
stars — around  the  great  sorrow  it  had  encountered, 
the  obstruction  which  had  ground  grain  for  man  ;  foi 
that,  transfigured  in  the  Poet's  song,  seemed  the  hap- 
piest experience  of  all.  Monciire  D.  Comcay. 

From  "  St.  Nicholas."    By  permission  Century  Pub.  Co. 


REFEREXCES. 

Elements  of  Rhetoric.     De  ]Mille.   , 
Practical  Rhetoric.     Clark. 
Complete  Rhetoric.     Welsh. 
Principles  of  Rhetoric.     A.  S.  Hill. 


118  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


CHAPTER  V. 

COMMON   ERRORS   IN   THE   USE   OP   ENGLISH. 

Syntax  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  in  a  sentence, 
so  as  to  show  their  true  grammatical  relations. 

A  Solecism  is  a  violation  (jf  the  rules  of  Syntax. 
The  word  is  derived  from  the  name  of  the  Soli^  a  tribe 
who  once  lived  in  Attica.  Having  moved  to  Cilicia  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  they  founded  a  colony,  they  gradu- 
ally lost  the  purity  of  their  language. 

Solecisms  are  often  called  examples  of  False  Syntax. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  "  Use  is  the  law  of  lan- 
guage." The  usage  of  the  best  English  writers  and 
speakers  of  any  age  determines  what  is,  in  that  age^ 
regarded  as  "good  English."  But  you  must  not  forget 
that  the  language  is  groioing.  What  was  thought  to  be 
correct  and  elegant  English,  in  the  time  of  Shakespeare 
and  Milton,  contains  many  expressions  which  are  now 
regarded  as  solecisms.  So  too,  in  our  translation  of  the 
Bible  you  find  constructions  which  are  not  now  in  good 
usage,  though  they  were  at  the  time  when  the  transla- 
tion was  made. 

Even  at  the  present  time,  there  are  many  unsettled 
questions  as  to  the  correctness  of  certain  forms  of 
speech.  It  is  not  wise,  therefore,  to  say  that  some 
of  these  expressions  which  are  commonly  regarded  as 
errors  are  positively  wrong.    The  best  general  rule  that 


COMMON   ERRORS.  119 

can  be  given  is,  Observe  the  usage  of  the  most  careful 
writers  and  speakers  of  the  jjresent  time. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  rules  which  are  com- 
monl}^  violated.  Correct  the  examples  under  each  rule, 
stating  clearly  the  reason  for  each  correction. 

The  Nominative  Case  and  the  Verh. 

A  finite  verb  must  agree  in  person  and  number  with 
its  subject. 

Remember  that  each,  every,  no,  many  a,  either,  and 
neither,  etc.,  are  all  singular  in  idea,  since  they  refer  to 
persons  or  things  considered  separately. 

1.  Every  train  and  steamboat  were  crowded  to  their  utmost 

capacity. 

2.  Many  a  man  have  sad  recollections  of  his  youth. 

3.  No  wife,  no  mother,  no  child,  were  there  to  comfort  him. 

4.  Either  you  or  I  ape  in  the  wrong. 

0.  The  Savannah  and  James  empties  into  the  Atlantic. 
G.    Of  what  uationalit}'  are  each  of  your  parents? 

7.'  is  not  the  Danube  and  the  Rliiue  noted  for  their  scenery; 

8.  When  does  your  father  and  mother  come  home? 

9.  Every  one  of  the  men  say  the  same  thing. 

10.    I  was  on  one  side  of  the  street  and  you  was  on  the  other. 

Singular    Subject    followed    hy    Adjunct   containing- 

Plural   Xoun. 

When  the  singular  subject  of  a  sentence  is  immedi- 
ately followed  by  an  adjunct  containing  a  plural  noun, 
the  verb  must  not  be  made  plural. 

1.  A   sojourn  of   five  years  in  the  wilds  of  Africa  have 

strengthened  these  opinions. 

2.  The  chirping  of  the  sparrows  announce  the  early  dawn. 


120  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

3.  Not  a  line  of  the  lectures  were  written  beforehand. 

4.  The    introdiictiou  of  such  beverages  as  tea  and  coffee 

have  not  been  withont  their  effects. 
T).    The  severity  of  the  symptoms  were  no  criterion  of  tlie 

danger  of  the  disease. 
0.    A  box  of  figs  were  sent  us  for  Christmas. 


'»■■ 


Mistakes    in   Number. 

1.  The  servant  took  up  the  ashes  ^  and  carried  it  out. 

2.  Oats  is  now  being  harvested. 

.3.    "  Horses  "  are  of  the  plural  number  because  the}^  denote 

more  than  one. 
4.    He  understands  all  the  minutia  of  geology, 
o.    A   disagreeable   effluvia   comes   from   tlie    neighboring 

swamp. 

6.  Are  there  any  news-  in  the  city? 

7.  Great  pains-  were  taken  to  preserve  secrecy. 

8.  The  whereabouts-  of  his  family  are  not  known. 

9.  The  wages"  of  sin  are  death. 

10.  Optics-  are  an  essential  branch  of  the  science. 

1 1 .  About  the  organ  are  carved  lovel}'  flowers  and  cherubims. 

12.  My  answer  is  0.0275  square  miles. 

13.  Mr.  Brown  is  an  alumni  of  Yale  College. 

14.  Is  my  scissors^  in  your  work-basket? 

1.").    "  The  Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville  "  were  written 

bv  Washington  Irving. 
ir>.    "We  looked  down  upon  broad  plains  and  fertile  vallies. 
17.    These    quaintly  carved  pieces  of   ivory  are  said  to  be 

talismen  such  as  are  used  by  the  Mussulmen. 

15.  Use  two  cupsful  of  sugar  and  three  spoonsful  of  baking- 

powder. 
19.    The  Mr.  Harper's  called  on  the  Dr.  Browns  and  on  the 
Miss  Clarks. 
1  Used  only  in  tlip  i>lural.  -  Plural  in  form,  but  siugiilOT  in  idea. 


COMMON   ERRORS.  121 

20.  Dot  your  Is,  aud  cross  your  Ts,  and  don't  use  too  many 

ands. 

21.  Seven  man-servants  belonged  to  the  castle. 

22.  The  rainbow  is  a  strange  and  inspiring  phenomena. 

23.  The  measles  are  not  commoulv  a  dangerous  disease. 

24.  Avoid  the  careless  use  of  parenthesises. 

Possessive  Case  before  a  Participle. 

The  possessive  case  of  the  noun  should  precede  the 
participle,  where  the  noun  represents  the  active  agent. 

1 .  Her  knowledge  of  the  Emperor  having  left  nothing  to 

her  son  induced  her  to  make  such  a  will. 

2.  Lad}'  Macbeth  walking  in  her  sleep  is  an  incident  full 

of  tragic  horror. 

3.  You  remember  Mar}-  having  painted  a  tea  set  for  her 

sister,  do  you  not  ? 

4.  The  story  of  Rip  Van  Winkle  awakening  is  graphically 

told. 

5.  I  cannot  bear  to  think  of  the  children  being  left  alone 

in  the  cold  world. 

Nominative  Case  of   Pronouns. 

The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  should  be  in  the  nomina- 
tive case. 

1 .  Whom  did  you  say  called  this  afternoon  ? 

2.  AVhat  were  you  and  him  talking  about? 

3.  The  old  man  left  his  fortune  to  those  whom  he  thought 

were  his  friends. 

4.  Whom  do  you  think  I  am? 

0.    My  brother  did  fully  as  well  as  me. 

6.  Her  mother  aud  her  have  gone  to  the  city. 


122  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

7.  I  can  write  better  than  him. 

8.  Them  that  seek  shall  find. 

9.  Such  persons  as  him  are  not  fit  associates. 

Possessive  Case. 

All  nouns  in  the  singular  number  and  all  nouns  in  the 
plural  except  those  ending  in  s,  form  the  possessive  by 
the  addition  of  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s.  Plural 
nouns  ending  in  s  add  the  apostrophe  only. 

Distinguish  carefully  between  the  plural  number  and 
the  possessive  case. 

1.  These  events  happened  in  the  reign  of  the  Charles's. 

2.  This  witnessed  statements  are  not  to  be  questioned. 

3.  We  have  just  bouglit  a  copy  of  Burns'  poems  and  a  set 

of  Dickens'  works. 

4.  Dr.  Arnold  was  the  master  of  the  famous  boy's  school 

at  Eugby. 

5.  The  Perkins's  are  a  most  interesting  family,  but  I  prefer 

to  visit  at  the  Hastings. 
(i.    Kino;  Charles'  reion  was  a  brief  and  troubled  one. 

7.  You  all  remember  the  foxes  remai'k  about  the  grapes. 

8.  Nineveh  was   an    exceeding   great   city  of   three    days 
>     journey. 

9.  The  three  countess's  were  invited  to  the  princess'  recep- 

tion. 
10.    The  package  was  sent  by  Adamses  P^xpress  Company. 

Such  expressions  as  "  for  goodness'  sake,"  and  "  for 
Jesus'  sake,"  are  among  the  few  exceptions  to  the  rule 
(|uoted  above. 

II.  If  several  possessive  nouns  refer  to  the  same  noun 
and  are  connected  by  and,  the  possessive  sign  should  be 
used  with  the  last  noun  only. 


COMMON   ERRORS.  123 

1.  They  have  a  special  sale  of  laces  at  Bolton's  and  Ncely's 

large  store. 

2.  Peter's  and  Andrew's  occupation  was  that  of  fishermen. 

3.  Ladle's  and  Gent's  Restaurant. 

4.  Men,  women's,  and  children's  shoes  for  sale  here. 

5.  Bryant's  and  Strattou's  Business  Manual. 

III.  If  common  possession  is  not  implied,  or  if  some 
disjunctive  word  is  used  betAA^een  the  possessive  terms, 
each  one  should  take  the  sign  of  tlie  possessive  case. 

1 .  Mr.  Grant  and  Mr.  Allen's  houses  were  both  struck  by 

lightning  during  yesterday's  storm. 

2.  Grant's  and  Allen's  store  was  burned. 

3.  She  refused  to  listen  to  her  parents  or  her  teacher's 

advice. 

4.  He  accepted   neither  the  skeptic  nor  the  clergyman's 

view  of  religion. 

5.  Is  that  a  boy  or  a  girl's  voice  that  I  hear? 

IV.  For  the  sake  of  euphony,  possession  is  often 
more  elegantly  expressed  by  the  use  of  the  prepo- 
sition of. 

1.  Leouidas's  soldiers  held  the  pass  at  Thermopylifi. 

2.  England  and  France's  armies  fought  at  Waterloo. 

3.  Xerxes's  death  prevented  another  invasion  of  Greece. 

4.  It  was  Dr.  Franklin  the  great  philosopher's  discovery. 

5.  Demosthenes's  orations  are  marvels  of  eloquence. 

V.  Sometimes  tlie  possessive  sign  is  needed  in  addi- 
tion to  the  possessive  of. 

1.  Have  you  seen  this  book  of  my  friend  Story? 

2.  Captain  Brown  was  a  friend  of  General  Grant. 

3.  "  So  to  speak  "  is  a  pet  phrase  of  our  minister. 


124  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

Possessive  Case  of  Pronouns. 

Personal  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case  never  take 
the  apostrophe. 

Distinguish  between  it's,  the  contraction  of  it  is,  and 
its,  the  personal  pronoun. 

1.  Your's  respectfully. 

2.  How  do  you  know  when  its  coming? 

3.  Those  books  are  their's,  but  her's  and  our's  are  lost. 

4.  I  will  uot  accept  any  advice  of  their's. 

5.  Its  a  bird  and  its  wins;  is  broken. 

The  pronouns  07ie,  other,  and  another  form  their  pos- 
sessives  regularly. 

1.  Ones  first  duty  is  the  one  that  lies  nearest. 

2.  They  wrung  each  others  hands  at  parting. 

3.  We  should  rejoice  for  others  happiness  and  grieve  for 

others  woes. 

4.  Enoch  Arden  retui'ned   to   his   home  to  find  his  wife 

anothers. 

Case  of  the  Pronoun  after  the  Verb  to  be. 

The  verb  to  he  takes  the  same  case  of  the  pronoun 
after  it  as  before  it. 

Ex.    I  supposed  it  [obj.]  to  be  her  [obj.]. 

I  supposed  that  it  [nom.]  was  she  [uom.]. 

1 .  Do  you  think  it  was  him  ? 

2.  It  might  have  been  him  who  did  it. 

3.  Is  it  me  you  wish  to  see? 

i.    "Who  do  you  take  me  to  be? 

0.    If  there  is  any  one  embarrassed,  it  will  not  be  me  and 
it  will  uot  be  she. 


i 


I 


COMMON    EKEOKS.  125 

6.  It  could  not  have  been  us  that  he  meant. 

7.  I  do  not  know  whether  those  strangers  arc  the  Grahams, 

but  I  supposed  it  was  them. 

8.  Who  is  there  ?     It's  onlv  me. 


Pronoun  used  before  a  Participial  Noun. 

The  possessive  case  of  the  pronoun  should  be  used 
before  a  participial  noun. 

1.  The  fact  of  them  being  in  the  neighborhood  was  very 

suspicious. 

2.  What  do  you  think  of  me  studying  J^atin? 

3.  His  father  was  opposed  to  Mm  entering  the  army. 

4.  I  rely  on  you  coming  in  good  season. 

5.  The  pupil's  progress  will  depend  largely  upon  him  being 

diligent  in  practice. 

Pronoun  and  Antecedent. 

The   pronoun    should   agree  with  its   antecedent  in 
gender,  person,  and  number. 

Note.     It  should  be  mentioned  that  this  is  one  of  the  "  disi)Uted 
points." 

1 .  Has  everybody  performed  their  examples  ? 

2.  If  any  one  is  there,  let  them  answer. 

3.  The  teacher  will  not  allow  any  one  to  do  as  they  please. 

4.  The  country  will  Ije  ruined    by  the  profligacy  of  their 

nobles. 

5.  Let  each  man  do  their  own  work. 

6.  A  person  who  is  resolute  and  energetic  is  apt  to  succeed 

in  their  undertakings. 

7.  Every  plant  and  every  tree  produces  others  after  their 

kind. 


126  LESSONS    IX   ENGLISH. 

8.  Not  an  officer,  not  a  soldier,  and  not  a  camp-follower 

escaped  permanent  injury  to  their  health. 

9.  Everybody  has  reflections  which   they  think  worth  re- 

cording. 

10.  Each  of  the  children  have  their  own  peculiar  traits. 

11.  The  army  being  abandoned  by  its  leader,  pursued  mean- 

while their  miserable  march. 

12.  The  hen  looked  very  disconsolate  when  its  brood  rushed 

into  the  water. 

Kote  that  each,  every,  anybody,  everybody,  nobody, 
and  somebody  refer  to  individuals  considered  separately; 
and  are,  therefore,  singular  in  idea. 

Nuiuber  —  Relative  Pronoun. 

The  relative  pronoun  should  agree  in  number  with 
its  antecedent.  This  rule  is  frequently  violated  in  such 
sentences  as  the  following :  — 

"  One  of  the  earliest  names  that  lives  [live]  in  English 
Literature  is  that  of  Chancer." 

That  is  plural,  because  its  antecedent,  names,  is  plural. 
The  verb  should,  therefore,  be  plural,  to  agree  with  its 
subject  that.^ 

1.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  meteors  that  has  ever  been 

seen  in  this  country  shot  through  the  sky  last  night. 

2.  We  now  come  to  consider  one  of  the  greatest  evils  that 

afflicts  poor  human  nature. 

3.  This  strawberry  is  one  of  those  varieties  that  require^ 

careful  culture. 

i  Authorities  differ  eouLTrniiig  this  construction. 


COMMO^'    ERKOKS.  127 

•i.  My  wife  is  one  of  the  few  wonu'ii  wlio  never  neglects 
an  oi)[)ortiuiity  for  doing  good.  J^ 

5.  It  is  one  of  the  most  vahiable  books  that'4«ts  ever  issued 
from  the  press. 

Who,  AVhich,  and  What. 

The  relative  ivlio  is  applied  to  persons ;  ivkicJi^  to  all 
other  objects ;  and  that,  to  either  persons  or  things. 
That  is  more  restrictive  than  ^vlio  or  zvliich. 

The  expression,  "  Onr  Father  which  art  in  heaven  " 
must  not  be  regarded  as  a  violation  of  this  rnle.  The 
pronoun  who  did  not  come  into  the  language  until  the 
seventeenth  century. 

1 .  That  was  the  largest  congregation  which  ever  gathered 

in  the  church. 

2.  Was  it  you  or  tlie  wind  who  shut  the  door? 

3.  Is  that  the  dog  whom  vou  bouoht  of  F'red? 

•4.    It  was  the  Colonel's  horse,  and  not  himself,  who  fell  in 

the  combat. 
5.    There  is  scarcel}-  a  day  which  does  not  bring  new  proof 

of  God's  goodness, 
fi.    It  was  necessity  wdiich  taught  me  to  be  a  geologist. 
7.    Those  which  are  rich  should  assist  the  poor. 

INoni illative  Case  —  Relative  Pronouns. 

Whom  is  often  incorrectly  used  for  who,  in  such  sen- 
tences as  this :  — 

"  I  saw  the  man  tvhom  we  thought  was  dead." 

If  we  omit  tlie  intermediate  clause  we  thought,  the 
sentence  reads,  We  saw  the  man  ivhom  was  dead.     It  is 


128  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

evident  now  that  the  relative  pronoun  is  the  subject  of 
loas.     It  shoukl,  therefore,  be  loJio  instead  of  who7n. 

This  is  another  disputed  point.  In  some  sentences, 
it  is  difficult  to  tell  whether  the  pronoun  should  be 
tvho  or  ivhom.     For  example  :  — 

We  met  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Murray,  whom  we  thought  [to  be] 

very  delightful  people. 
AVe  met  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Murray,  icho  we  thought  [were] 

very  delightful  people. 

1.  He  gave  his  property  to  those  whom  he  thought  were 

his  friends. 

2.  The  oldest  daughter  married  a  bauker  whom  they  say  is 

very  wealth}'. 

3.  Ada  was  annoyed  by  the  presence  of  Mr.  Foster,  Avhom, 

her  mother  insisted,  was  a  very  haudsome  man. 

4.  Johun^'  wants  to  have  a  JNIau  Friday,  whom  he  thinks 

would  be  better  tliau  a  dog  and  ahnost  as  good  as  a 
pony. 

The  Objective  Case. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  of  a  preposition 
should  be  in  the  objective  case. 

1 .  Who  do  you  take  me  for  ? 

2.  Please  pass  the  bread  to  Charlie  and  I. 

;5.  Between  you  aud^  I  don't  believe  a  word  of  it. 

4.  Let  he  who  made  thee  answer  that. 

5.  Who  are  you  writing  to? 

6.  Mother  went  with  Father  and  I. 

7.  Who  can  I  trust,  if  not  he? 

8.  Let  thou  and  I  the  battle  try. 
U .  Who  does  she  look  like  ? 

10.    We  did  not  tell  her  who  the  valeutiue  came  from. 


COMMON   ERRORS.  1'29 

To  as  the  Sigrii  of  the  Iiifliiitive. 

I.  To^  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  should  not  be  sep- 
arated from  the  verb  by  any  intervening  word. 

Some  good  authorities  insist  that  it  is  not  only  cor- 
rect to  separate  to  from  the  verb,  but  that  such  a  con- 
struction adds  to  the  force  of  the  sentence.  In  some 
sentences,  however,  it  seems  better  to  follow  the  rule. 

1.  To  better  and  more    forcibly   illustrate   the   truth,    he 

referred  to  the  case  of  Broekby. 

2.  A  pure  heart  is  necessary  if  we  wish  to  thoroughly  enjoy 

the  beauties  of  nature. 

3.  To  nobl}-  bear  is  braver  than  to  rashl}'  dare. 

4.  To  calmly  face  disaster  and  death  requires  real  courage. 

5.  You  must  not  expect  to   always   have    things    as   you 

would  like  to  have  them. 
G.    We  were  to  cautiously  and  quickly  advance  to  the  hill 
above. 

II.  The  active  verbs  hid,  dare,  let,  hear,  7ieed,  feel, 
make,  and  see,  are  nsiialli/  followed  by  the  infinitive 
without  the  to. 

In  which  of  the  following  sentences  is  the  to  needed  ? 

1.  I  dare  to  say  you  are  right. 

2.  They  were  bidden  come  from  the  highways  and  hedges. 

3.  The  rose  felt  a  gentle  breeze  to  fan  her  cheek. 

4 .  Then  we  saw  the  silver  moon  to  rise  from  a  bank  of  clouds. 

5.  Bessie  bids  fair  to  be  as  tall  as  her  mother. 
C.  I  dared  him  to  prove  his  assertion. 

7.  You  cannot  see  to  write  in  this  dark  room. 

8.  I  feel  it  to  be'  my  duty  to  warn  you  of  your  danger. 

9.  How  darest  thou  to  name  my  daughter? 

10.    The  old  man  was  never  seen  give  a  cent  to  charity. 


130  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

ITI.    Tlie  sign  of  the  infinitive  is  often  omitted  where 

it  should  be  used. 

1.  Try  aud  remember  what  you  did  with  mj^  thimble. 

2.  Will  3"0U  please  excuse  my  son  for  absence  yesterday?^ 

3.  It  is  injudicious  to  praise  or  blame  a  child  without  good 

reason. 

4.  "No,"  said  the  soldier,    "we  are   ready  to   die,   not 

yield." ^ 

5.  In  order  to  justify  this  extraordinary'  measure  and  dis- 

tract public  attention  from  the  real  causes,  the  clubs 
tried  to  shift  the  blame  to  the  players. 

Present  and  Perfect  Infinitive. 

"After  a  verb  in  the  past  tense,  use  the  perfect  infini- 
tive only  Avhen  the  act  or  state  indicated  by  the  in- 
finitive is  prior  to  that  expressed  by  the  principal  verb." 

1.  We  did  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have  done. 

2.  I  meau|  to  have  written  the  answer  to-morrow. 

3.  Mr.  Fogg  intended  to  hfti'e  sec^  for  himself  how  the 

vvork  was  progressing. 

4.  P\'thagoras  is  supposed  to  be  born  more  than  five  hun- 

dred years  before  Christ. 
r>.    It  was  the  policeman's  duty  to  have  arrested  the  burglar. 
G.    I  expected  to  have  written  on  that  subject. 

7.  I  forgot  to  have  mentioned  the  fact. 

8.  It  was  my  intention  to  have  collected  many  specimens. 

Don^t,  in  the  Third  Person  Singnlar. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  dont  is  a  contraction 
of  do  not^  and  that  it  should  be  used  only  where  it  may 
be  substituted  for  do  not. 

1  Another  disputed  i^oint. 


COMMON   ERRORS.  l3l 

1st  per.     T  do  not.  we  do  not. 

2d     '*       you  do  not.  yoii  do  not. 

3d     "        he,  she  or  it  does  not.      they  do  not. 

•  "He  don't"  is,  therefore,  wrong.  The  proper  con- 
traction is  doesn't.  Remember,  also,  that  isn't  and  aren't 
are  the  proper  contractions  for  is  not  and.  are  not.  Aiut 
shonkl  never  be  used. 

1.  It  don't  seem  possible  that  we  have  been  here  six  weeks. 

2.  He  don't  impress  me  favorably. 

3.  The  captain  can  afford  to  be  cheerful.     He  don't  know 

what  it  is  to  be  seasick. 

4.  Our  teacher  don't  have  to  work  very  hard. 

;").    Don't  it  seem  strange  that  Father  don't  write? 
6.    I  aint  a  bit  sorry  that  they  aint  coming. 

Mistakes  in  Tense. 

The  present  tense  should  be  used  in  expressing  pres- 
ent facts  and  unchangeable  truths. 

1.  Our  teacher  told  us  that  the  air  was  made  up  of  two  gases. 

2.  He  tried  to  impress  upon  our  minds  the  truth  that  hon- 

esty was  the  best  policy. 

3.  What  did  you  sav  this  ladv's  name  was? 

4.  I  could  not  remember  where  Lake  Como  was  situated. 

5.  Wliat  church  was  that  which  we  passed  this  afternoon? 

6.  Is  my  face  suu-burned?     I  should  say  that  it  was. 

7.  Dr.  Johnson  said  of  knowledge  that  it  was  of  two  kinds. 

We  either  knew  a  thing  or  we  knew  where  it  coulil  be 
found. 

The  Past  Tense  and  the  Perfect  Participle. 

Cfive  the  prmeipal  j^arts  of  each  verb. 

1.  She  done  the  best  she  knew  how. 

2.  Coal  must  have  went  up  since  last  week. 


132  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

3.  Have  you  broke  any  of  the  rules? 

4.  The  train  run  at  terrific  speed. 

5.  They  all  drunk  the  health  of  the  president. 
G.  The  choir  sung  a  beautiful  anthem.' 

7.  All  the  restraints   of  home   had  been   shook   off   long 

before. 

<S.  The  children  beseeched  for  a  holiday. 

9.  A  better  day  for  the  journey  could  not  have  lieen  chose. 

10.  His  mother  had  wrote  a  letter  in  his  behalf. 

11.  I  begun  to  be  frightened.' 

12.  My  daughter  has  took  the  first  prize. 

13.  He  wishes  now  that  he  hadn't  went. 

Snbjiiiiotivc  Mood. 

"  Where  ?i  future  contingency,  or  doubt,  or  indecision, 
or  a  wish,  is  expressed,  the  verb  should  be  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood ;  but  where  a  conditional  circumstance 
wldcli  is  not  future  is  expressed,  the  verb  should  be  in 
the  indicative." 

Ex.  He  will  not  be  pardoned  unless  he  repent.      (Subj.) 
If  he  knows  the  way,  he  does  not  need  a  guide.  (Indie.) 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  distinction  between  the 
subjunctive  and  the  indicative  is  less  and  less  observed. 
Indeed,  some  authorities  assert  that  there  is  no  true 
subjunctive  in  English. 

1.  If  John  were  satisfied,  why  should  she  be  discontented? 

2.  And  so  would  I,  if  I  was  he.  » 

3.  I  met  a  certain  lady  whom  I  could  name  if  it  was  neces- 

sary. 

4.  I  wish  my  mother  was  here. 

1  If  there  are  two  forms  for  the  past  tense  of  a  verb,  it  is  better  to 
choose  the  oue  whicli  is  not  like  the  participle. 


CCBIMON    ERRORS.  138 

a.    Whether  the  book  were  ever  publishetl,  I  do  uot  know. 
(J.    AVere  he  still  disposed  to  go,  he  may  take  my  horse  tliis 

afternoon. 
7.    AVhether  the  Ihie  dust  from  the  eruption  of  a  volcano 

were  the  cause  of  the  red  glow  in  our  sky  or  not  we 

may  never  be  able  to  show  positively. 

The  Verb  Ought. 

Ought  is  a  defective  verb,  used  only  in  the  present 
and  the  past  tense.  The  present  tense  shonld  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  present  infinitive ;  the  past  tense,  by  the 
perfect  infinitive. 

1.  .Tohu  ought  to  go  to  work  yesterday. 

2.  I  think  he  ought  to  have  gone  to-morrow. 

3.  You  hadn't  ought  to  done  it. 

4.  AVe  have  done  many  things  that  Ave  hadn't  ought  to  done 

and  left  undone  many  things  that  we  ought  to  do. 

The  Article. 

I.  The  article  a  should  be  used  before  all  words  be- 
ginning with  a  consonant  sound,  except  words  of  more 
than  two  syllables  beginning  with  h  and  having  either 
a  primary  or  a  secondary  accent  on  the  second  syllable. 
An  should  be  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel 
sound  or  a  silent  h. 

1.  Next  week's  issue  of  Harper's  Weekly  is  to  contain  a 

historical  sketch  of  President  Cleveland. 

2.  Such  au  one  has  before  him  an  high  and  honorable  career. 

{One  begins  with  the  sound  of  lo.) 

3.  I  cannot  entertain,  for  a   moment,  such  a  hypothesis 

as  that. 


134  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

4.  James  Freeman  Clarke  is  the  pastor  of  an  Unitarian 
church  iu  Boston.  {Uidtaricm  begins  with  the  sound 
of  y.) 

i).    Many  an  liypocritical  tear  was  shed. 

G.  May  my  last  sun  look  down  upon  an  united  and  happy 
people. 

7.  Uriah  Heep  professed  to  have  an  humble  spirit. 

8.  He  frequently  said,  "  I  am  a  umble  person." 

II.  The  article  should  not  be  used  between  the  pos- 
sessive case  and  the  substantive  word  or  phrase  which 
it  governs. 

1.  Hawthorne's  "The  Scarlet  Letter"  made  him  famous 

as  a  novelist. 

2.  We  have  begun  to  read  Irving's  "The  Sketch  Book." 

3.  Mark  Twain's  "  A  Tramp  Abroad  "  is  very  amusing. 

III.  The  article  should  be  used  before  each  of  sev- 
eral expressions  in  the  same  construction  when  they 
refer  to  persons  or  things  which  must  be  considered 
separately. 

1.  The  societ}'  appointed  three  new  officers,  a  president, 

secretary,  and  treasurer. 

2.  Mr.  Sharpe  is  the  president,  and  Mr.  Carey  secretary 

and  treasurer. 

3.  The  English  language  derives  many   words   from  the 

Latin,  French,  Italian,  and  Greek. 

4.  To   the    Olympic   festivals    came    the    athlete,   soldier, 

statesman,  scholar,  and  poet. 

5.  This  question  interests  alike  the  teacher  and  pupil. 

G.  Harry  has  a  black  and  white  dog,  a  black  and  a  white 
dog.     How  many  dogs  has  he? 

7.  There  are  two  kinds  of  articles  :  the  definite  and  in- 
definite. 


COMMON   ERRORS.  135 

IV.  The  article  is  not  needed  before  a  word  taken  in 
a  general  sense,  or  used  simply  as  a  name. 

1 .  I  did  not  tliiuk  that  he  was  that  sort  of  a  boy. 

2.  AVliat  species  of  a  violet  is  this  j-ellow  one? 

3.  He  does  not  deserve  the  name  of  a  gentleman. 

4.  I  will  not  call  him  a  villain,  because  that  would  be  un- 

pailiamentarj'. 

5.  Washington  Irving  died  of  the  heart  disease. 

G.    The  Connecticut  and  the  Mississippi  are  names  from 

the  Indian  dialects. 
7.    Brutus  received  the  title  of  a  consul. 

V.  The  article  should  be  used  before  the  present 
participle  when  the  participle  is  immediately  followed 
by  of.  It  is  often  better  to  omit  both  article  and  prep- 
osition. 

1.  Great  benefits  may  be  derived  from  reading  of  good 

books. 

2.  A  wise  teacher  will  avoid  the  showing  any  partiality. 

3.  To  thee  death  is  not  so  much  as  lifting  of  a  latch. 

4.  Youth  is  the  time  for  forming  of  the  character. 

5.  He  read  the  parable  about  sowing  of  the  seed. 

6.  "  lu  building  of  chaises,  I  tell  you  what, 

There  is  always  somewhere  a  weakest  spot." 

VI.  The  definite  article  should  be  used  when  we 
wish  to  refer  to  a  class  as  a  whole,  or  to  one  object  as 
the  representative  of  a  class. 

1.  A  rose  is  my  favorite  flower. 

2.  We  will  now  consider  that  uoble  animal,  a  horse. 

3.  An  owl  is  a  bird  of  wisdom. 

4.  A  whole  is  greater  than  any  of  its  parts. 

5.  The  lions  are  the  kings  of  beasts. 


136  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

VII.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  qualify  the  same 
noun,  tlie  article  should  precede  each  adjective  if  the 
noun  is  singular,  l)ut  only  the  first  if  the  noun  is  plural. 

1 .  The  third  and  fourth  page  are  to  be  learned. 

2.  lleview  the  first  and  the  second  pages. 

;].    The  Assyrian  and  the   Egyptian   kingdoms   were   the 

greatest  powers  of  the  ancient  world. 
4.    There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  old  and  the 

new  versions  of  the  Scriptures, 
f).    Notice  how  this  word  differs  from  the  Latin  and  Greek 

form  expressing  the  same  idea. 

Adjectives  which  imply  Niiniher. 

Adjectives  should  agree  in  number  with  the  nouns 
wliicli  they  qualify. 

1 .  Do  you  like  those  sort  of  collars  ? 

2.  Those  kind  of  trees  are  evergreen. 

3.  You  have  been  asleep  this  two  hours. 

4.  His  wife  died  two  year  ago. 

0.  He  is  five  foot  nine  inches  high. 

G.    He  measured  the  lot  with  a  ten  feet  pole. 
7.    I  have  a  sixty  inches  tape  measure. 

Note.    In  the  last   two   sentences,  the  expressions  iPn-foat  and 
aixty-inch  are  to  be  regarded  as  compound  adjectives. 

Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

If  only  two  persons  or  things  are  compared,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  use  the  comparative  degree  of  the  adjective  ;  if 
more  than  two,  the  superlative. 

1.  Of  two  evils,  choose  the  least. 

2.  My  mother  is  the  elder  of  five  sisters 


COMMON    ERRORS.  137 

0.  Which  is  tile  best  of  the  two? 

4.  The  smallest  of  the  twins  is  the  prettiest. 

5.  Which  is  most  desirable,  health  or  wealth? 

Faulty  Comparisons. 

I.  When  comparison  between  a  particular  term  and 
the  rest  of  a  class  to  which  it  belongs  is  expressed  by 
the  comparative  degree  of  the  adjective,  the  particular 
term  must  always  be  excluded  from  the  class  with  which 
it  is  compared.  This  may  commonly  be  done  by  insert- 
ing: the  word  other. 

o  ^ 

-.    I 

1.  Iron  is  more  useful  than  all  the  metals. 

2.  Our  new  minister  is  more  eloquent  than  any  preacher 

we  ever  had. 

3.  This  book  of  letters  is  more  interesting  to  me  than  any 

book  of  human  composition. 

4.  John  is  more  mischievous  than  any  boy  in  the  world. 

5.  Probably  Lord  Halifax  is  better  versed  in  the  history  of 

that  period  than  any  man  that  ever  lived. 

6.  London  is  more  crowded  than  any  city  in  Great  Britain, 

II.  When  the  superlative  degree  is  used,  the  particu- 
lar term  must  always  be  included  in  the  class  of  things 
with  which  the  comparison  is  made. 

1.  St.  Paul's  is  the  greatest  of  all  other  London  churches. 

2.  This  picture  is,  of  all  others,  the  most  fascinating  to  me. 

3.  The  climate  of  Colorado  is  said  to  be  the  healthiest  of 

any  other  in  the  United  States. 

4.  Being  without  a  guide,  we  took  a  wrong  path,  used  only 

by  the  shepherds,  and  certainly  the  steepest  I  ever 
climbed  before. 

5.  Of   all   other  beings,    mau   certainly  has  the   greatest 

reason  for  gratitude. 


/ 


138  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

6.  A  fondness  for  display  is  of  all  other  follies  the  most 

ridiculous. 

7.  China  has  the  greatest  population  of  any  other  country 

on  the  globe. 

Adverbs  used  for  Adjectives. 

After  the  verbs  he,  look,  taste,  smell,  feel,  seem,  and  a 
few  others,  use  an  adjective  to  express  qualit//  or  state 
of  the  subject  or  object,  and  an  adverb  to  express  the 
manner  of  the  action. 

1.  The  apples  stewed  tenderly. 

2.  The  beautiful  roses  smell  so  sweetly. 

3.  She  seems  amiably  enough. 

4.  How  sourly  these  currants  taste  ! 

5.  She  looked  cold  and  scornful  upon  his  offer. 

G.    Tlie  cow  looked  as  queerly  as  cows  generally  do  when 
they  try  to  run. 

7.  How  beautifully  the  river  appears  in  the  moonlight ! 

8.  Doesn't  Bertha  look  sweetly  with  her  hair  braided? 

Adjectives  used  for  Adverbs. 

Adverbs  limit  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

1.  1  am  exceeding  sorry  to  hear  of  your  trouble. 

2.  Agreeable  'to  ni}-  promise,  I  now  write, 
o.    You  behaved  very  improper. 

4.  She  was  scarce  sensible  of  what  was  going  on  around 

her. 

5.  I  am  tolerable  well,  thank  you. 

(').    We  are  not  near  through  our  work. 

7.  Speak  slow  and  distinct. 

8.  We  ought  to  value  our  privileges  higher. 


COMMON    EKUOKS.  139 

Double  Xegatives. 

Two  negatives  are  ec[uivalent  to  an  affirmative. 

1 .  I  don  t  know  nothing  about  your  affau's. 

2.  AVill  wasn't  at  the  lecture,  I  don't  think. 

3.  She  says  she  don't  never  use  three  eggs  for  her  puddings. 

4.  Neither  you  nor  nobody  else  ever  saw  such  a  sight. 

5.  He  had  no  home  nor  friends.^ 

Allied  to  these  sentences  are  the  following :  — 

6.  I  have  not  had  hardly  a  moment's  time  since  I  received 

your  letter. 

7.  We  cannot  have  but  one  week's  vacation. 

8.  The  train  will  not  stop  only  when  the  bell  rings. 

Either  —  Or  ;    Xeitlier  —  ^or. 

Or  slioiild  never  be  used  as  the  correlative  of  neither. 
The  correlatives  should  occupy  corresponding  positions 
in  the  sentence.  For  example,  either  must  not  precede 
a  verb  and  or  a  noun,  as  in  the  sentence,  "  Jennie  can 
either  write  prose  or  poetry.  The  proper  form  is,  Jennie 
can  write  either  prose  or  poetry-. 

1.  We  are  neither  acquainted  with  the  doctor  «¥-his  Aimily. 

2.  He  was  neither  fitted  by  abilities  nor  disposition  to  carry 

out  the  washes  of  his  mother  and  sister. 

3.  In  estimating  the  labors   of   the  German  Reformer,   we 

must  neither  forget  the  temper  of  the  man  nor  the  age 
in  which  he  lived. 

4.  She  neither  moved,  spoke,  or  wept  during  all  those  sad  days. 

5.  Processions  of  priests  have  been,  for  several  days  past, 

prajung  for  rain,  but  the  gods  are  either  angry  or  nature 
too  powerful. 

6.  Neither  one  or  the  other  has  the  least  chance  of  success. 

1  Whether  or  or  nor  should  be  used  after  no,  not,  an(J  never,  is  one  of 
the  dis^iuted  points. 


1-10  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

WORDS   OFTEN   CONFUSED. 
Shall  and  Will. 

GENERAL    RULES. 

I.    To  express  futurity,  use  shall  in  the  first  person, 
and  ivill  in  tlie  second  and  third. 


1st  Per.    I  shall  be  sixteen  in  June.      (Simply  foretells.) 
"     "      When   shall   I  come   to  see  you?     (Inquires  con- 
cerning the  wish  or  intention  of  another.) 
2d  Per.    You  will  have  a  warm  day  for  your  journey.    (Fore- 
tells.) 
"     "      You  will  report  at   headquarters.     (Expresses  an 

official  command.) 
"     "      Will  you  do  me    the   favor  to  inquire?     (Implies 
wish  or  desire  on  the  part  of  the  speaker.) 
3d  Per.    He  will  repent  of  his  action.     (Foretells.) 
"     "      Will  she  receive  us  kindly?     (Inquires  concerning 
will  or  purpose  of  another.) 

II.  To  express  promise,  purpose,  determination,  ob- 
ligation, or  inevitable  action  which  the  speaker  means 
to  control,  use  ivill  in  tlie  first  person,  and  shall  in  the 
second  and  third. 

1st  Per.    I  will   meet  you    at    the   church.      (Expresses   a 
promise.) 
I  will  be  obeyed.      (Expresses  determination.) 
Which  will  I  choose  ?     (AVhich  do  you  think  will 
be  my  choice?) 
"     "      Which  shall  I  choose?     (Which  would  you  advise 
me  to  choose?) 
2d  Per.    Yon  shall  repent  of  this.      (Expresses  a  threat.) 
"     "      Thou  shalt  do  no  murder.    (Expresses  a  command.) 


U  11, 


COMMON   EKKOKS.  141 

2cl  Per.    You   shall   have    a    new  peuoil    to-morrow.      (Ex- 
presses a  promise.) 

"     "      Shall  3'ou  stay  at  home  this  eveuiug?     (Is  it  your 
purpose  to  stay  at  home?) 
3d  Per.     She   shall  have  an    apple    if    she  is   a  good   girl. 
(Promises.) 

"  "  He  shall  come  down  like  raiu  upon  the  mown  grass. 
(Prophesies  au  event  which  is  beyond  the  con- 
trol of  the  speaker.) 

"  "  Shall  he  bring  a  pail  of  water?  (Do  you  wish  him 
to  bring  it  ?) 

The  difference  between  should  and  tvould  is  mainly 
the  same  as  that  between  shall  and  ivill. 

Would  that  I  were  rich  !      (Expresses  a  wish.) 
You  should  not  use  such  language.     (Expresses  duty.) 
She  would  start,  in  spite  of  the  rain.     (Expresses  deter- 
mination.) 

Grandfather   would  sit   all    day,   thinkiug   of   old  times. 
(Expresses  custom.) 
I  would  go,  if  I  had  time.     (Conditional  assertion.) 
If  he  should  call,  tell  him  that  I  could  not  wait  for  him. 
(Dependent  action.) 

Correct  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  Will  I  put  more  wood  into  the  stove? 

2.  I  will  be  drowned  ;  nobody  shall  help  me. 

3.  Thou  wilt  not  steal. 

4.  Shall  3'OU  be  a  candidate?     (Is  it  your  will?) 

5.  Will  3'ou  be  elected?     (Do  you  think  so?) 

6.  I  would  like  to  know  who  he  is. 

7.  When  will  we  three  meet  again? 

8.  I  was  afraid  she  should  lose  it. 

9.  Will  I  go  with  you? 


142  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

10.  I  insist  tliat  the  pupils  will  be  orderly  and  attentive. 

11.  If  we  examine  with  minuteness  the  falling  snow,   we 

will  observe  that  each  flake  consists  of  a  number  of 
exceedingly  delicate  particles  of  ice. 

Can  and  May. 

Can  should  be  used  to  express  power  or  possibility ; 
majj,  to  express  permission  or  probability.  A  similar 
distinction  should  be  made  between  could  and  might. 

1 .  Can  I  speak  to  my  seat-mate  ? 

2.  Mtty  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God? 

3.  Can  I  eat  more  of  these  chocolate  creams? 

4.  Mother  said  I  could  invite  some  of  my  friends  to  tea. 

5.  I  wish  I  might  do  more  for  the  poor,  but  I  have  not 

much  to  give. 

6.  I  wish  we  could  see  more  of  each  other,  but  our  home 
,    duties  forbid. 

7.  Can  I  use  a  sheet  of  this  paper? 

Sit  and  Set. 

Set  is  commonly  active,  and  means  to  place  in  position. 
Sit  is,  in  most  senses,  a  neuter  verb. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Pres.  Past.  Pres.  Part.  Perf.  Part. 

Sit.  Sat.  Sitting.  Sat. 

Set.  Set.  Setting.  Set. 


»• 


1.  Your  coat  doesn't  set  well  across  the  shoulders. 

2.  If  you  are  going  to  do  your  work,  why  don't  you  sit 

about  it? 

3.  Hawthorne  kept  many  note-books,  in  which  he  sat  down 

things  that  he  wished  to  remember. 


COMMON   ERRORS.  143 

V 

4.  Come  in  and  set  awhile,  neighbor. 

5.  He  always  sat  apart  one-tenth  of  his  income  to  give  to 

the  Lord. 
G.    Fanny  set  up  until  midnight  to  write  her  composition. 
7.    She  is  cross  as  a  setting  hen,  in  consequence. 
S.    Mother  sot  in  the  setting- room. 
\   9.    Father  set  old  Speckle  on  thirteen  eggs  and  there  she 

has  set  ever  since.  , 

10.  Mrs.  Foster  set  for  her  portrait  when  she  was  in  the 

city. 

1 1 .  Captain  Barnes  showed  us  how  the  tide  sits  in  up  the 

creek. 

12.  How  long  has  the  court  been  setting? 

Lie  and  Lay. 

Lie  is  an  intransitive  verb,  and  means  to  recline  ;  also 
to  tell  a  falsehood. 

Lay  is  transitive,  and  means  to  put  in  position,  to  place. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Pres.  Past.  Pres.  Part.  Perf.  Part. 

Lie,  to  recline.  Lie.  Lay.       Lying.        Lain. 

Lie,  to  tell  a  falsehood.      Lie.  Lied.       Lying.        Lied. 

Lay,  to  place.  Lay.  Laid.      Laying.      Laid. 

1.  Mamma  has  laid  down  on  the  sofa. 

2.  The  soldiers  had  laid  on  the  ground  all  night. 

3.  AYhy  d(ni't  you  lay  down  and  take  a  nap? 

4.  Lake  Champhiiu  lays  between  Vermont  and  New  York. 

5.  What  book  is  that  laying  on  the  table? 

6.  I  lied  me  down  and  slept. 

7.  Trouble  lays  heavy  on  his  heart. 

8.  The  Captain  gave  the  order  for  the  ship  to  lay  to. 


144  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

9.    I  did  not  know  that  j-our  son's  talent  laid  in  that  direc- 
tion. 

10.  The  Indians  had  laid  in  wait  for  several  da3-s. 

1 1 .  They  were  laying  in  wait  for  the  band  of  settlers. 

12.  The  rain  has  lain  the  dust. 

Flee,  Fly,  and  Flow. 

Flee,  to  escape. 

Fly,  to  soar  in  the  air. 

Flow,  to  glide  like  a  river. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 


Pres. 

Past. 

Prcs.  Part. 

Perf.  Part 

Flee. 

Fled. 

Fleeing. 

Fled. 

Fly. 

Flew. 

Flying. 

Flown. 

Flow. 

Flowed. 

Flowing. 

Flowed. 

1.  The  Nile  flew  over  its  banks. 

2.  A  horse  will  fly  from  the  presence  of  a  camel. 

3.  And  still  the  river  fled  on. 

4.  The  terrified  savages  flew  to  the  mountains. 

5.  They  found  that  the  feathered  prisoner  had  fled. 

Such   and  So. 

The  adjective  sueJi  is  often  incorrectly  used  instead 
of  the  adverb  so.  jSuch  may  properly  precede  another 
adjective  when  it  means  like  this  or  like  these,  as  in  the 
following  sentence :  — 

* 

"  In  such  arid  regions  as  border  upon  the  desert,  rain  sel- 
dom falls." 

When  the  idea  of  degree  is  to  be  expressed,  nse  so 
before  the  adjective. 
1.    I  never  knew-suclra  lovely  woman  as  Mrs.  Davenport. 


COM]MON   ERRORS.  145 

2.  How  could  he  treat  her  so  harshly  and  with  such  need- 

less scorn? 

3.  Few  countries  eujo\^  sw^i  a  mild  and  equable  climate. 

4.  We  must  pay  some  attention  to  such  a  high  authority 

on  such  an  important  matter. 

5.  You  seldom  see  such  a  tall  man  carry  himself  with  such 

unconscious  grace. 

6.  So  o-ioantic  works  as  the  Pyramids  are  fit  monuments  of 

despotic  power. 

Their,  They're,  and  There. 

Their  is  a  pronoun ;  there,  an  adverb  of  place,  or  an 
introductory  adverb.   They're  is  a  contraction  of  they  are. 

1.  Their  shall  be  no  night  there. 

2.  My  parents  would  not  give  there  consent. 

3.  In  all  there  wanderings,  they  never  lost  sight  of  there 

signal -pole. 

4.  Their  often  supposed  to  be  adverbs  because  of  there 

close  connection  with  the  verbs. 

5.  I  won't  go  if  their  going  to  be  there. 

■4 

V     '  Aught,  Ought,  and  Naught. 

Aught  is  a  noun,  meaning  anything. 
Ought  is  a  verb,  implying  duty. 
Naught  is  a  noun,  meaning  nothing. 

1.  The  figures  are  seven,  aught,  three,  five. 

2.  I  haven't  taught  to  give  you. 

3.  Hast  thou  ought  against  thy  neighbor? 

4.  You  ^ught  to  have  another  ought  in  your  minuend. 
0.  Haye  you  ought  to  make  you  proud  and  boastful? 
(\.  It  may  be  poison  for  ought  I  know. 

7.  We  aught  not  to  speak  against  our  neighbors. 


146  LESSONS   IX   ENGLISH. 

To,  Too,  and  Two. 

To  is  a  preposition ;  also  the  sign  of  the  infinitive. 
Too  is  an  adverb  of  degree,  addition,  or  excess. 
Two  is  a  numeral  adjective. 

1 .  Hattie  says  she  will  join  the  class  if  we  are  going  to(S). 

2.  To  late  !  to  late  !  ye  cannot  enter  now. 

3.  These  i^o  are  to  dark,  but  the  other  too  are  very  suit- 

able. 

4.  I  should  say  that  you  have  too  to  many. 

5.  You  may  go  if  you  wish  too. 

G.   We  need  not  be  afraid  of  doing  to  much  to  help  others. 

7.  Please  see  that  the  door  is  shut  too. 

8.  "Then  .  .  .,"  he  said,  "I  cannot  believe  that  she  would 

be  ./.  .  proud  ^.^.  work  f or  ^ ../..' such  children. 

Each  other  and  One  another. 

Each  other  should  be  used  with  reference  to  ttvo  per- 
sons or  things ;  one  another^  with  reference  to  more  than 
two.  A  similar  distinction  should  be  made  between 
either  and  any,  and  between  neither  and  none. 

1.  Let  two  straight  lines  cut  one  another. 

2.  Parents  like  to  see  their  children  kind  to  each  other. 

3.  Two  neoatives  in  Euo-lish  destrov  one  another. 

4.  Tlie  two  .John  Smiths  are  not  related  to  one  another. 

5.  I  do  not  admire  either  of  the  three  girls. 

6.  Neither  of  the  twelve  jurors  could  be  Induced  to  believe 

the  prisoner  guilty. 

Most  and  Ahnost. 

Use  almost  whenever  nearly  may  be  used  in  its  place. 
Use  most  in  the  sense  of  the  greater  number  or  quantity. 


• 


COMMON   ERRORS.  147 

1.  The  poor  old  lady's  money  is  most  gone. 

2.  We  ^ttost-alwaj^s  visit  here  in  the  summer. 

3.  Most  all  species  of  flowers  are  attractive  to  the  eye. 

4.  My  work  is  most  done,  and  I  am  most  tired  out. 

5.  jMost  everybody  gossips  more  or  less. 

G.    You  will  find  me  at  home  most  any  time. 

Except,  Without,  and  Unless. 

The  prepositions  except  and  without  are  often  used 
where  the  conjunction  unless  is  the  proper  word.  Use 
except  and  without  when  a  direct  object  follows. 

Ex.     I  will  not  go  without  ni}-  money. 
We  all  went  except  Mary. 

Use  unless  when  a  dependent  clause  follows  the  con- 
junction, 

1.  Mother  will  not  let  us  go  without  it  stops  raining. 

2.  Do  not  write  exefept  you- feel  in  the  mood  for  it. 

3.  The  hook  has  no  real  merit  except  its  simplicity  may  be 

regarded  as  a  charm. 

4.  They  could  not  hear  the  guns  without  the  wind  blew  from 

the  west. 

5.  Except  you  promise  to  do  better,  you  must  lose  your 

holiday. 

Like  and  As. 

In  comparisons,  use  Wee  when  it  may  properly  be  fol- 
lowed by  to. 

Ex.  "  The  corolla  of  the  mint  looks  like  [to]  the  mouth 
of  an  animal." 

Use  as  when  a  verb  follows  in  close  connection. 
p]x.     I  wish  3'ou  would  do  as  your  sister  does. 


148  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

1.  I  wish  I  could  write  like  our  teacher  can. 

2.  Nobody  will  miss  Mother  like  I  shall. 

3.  It  is  like  it  was  to  be  a  king  when  men  struggled  among 

themselves  who  should  be  a  king. 

4.  Charlie  is  a  timid,  nervous  child,  like  his  father  was. 

5.  If  each  man  would  ouly  add  his  mite,  like  the  pilgrim 

adds  his  stone  to  the  heap  in  the  desert,  the  temple 
would  soon  rise  and  show  its  fair  proportions  to  the 
world. 

Beside  and  Besides. 

Beside  is  a  preposition,  meaning  bt/  the  side  of. 
Besides  is  commonly  an  adverb  of  excess. 
Besides  is  often  incorrectly  used  for  except. 

1.  No  one  b€sit]4''the  immediate  famih'  was  present  at  the 

funeral. 

2.  Beside,  we  cannot  be  sure  that  that  is  the  meaning. 

3.  That  frail  little  form  was  dearer  to  her  than  all  the  world 

beside. 

4.  Besides  the  road  rose  the  chimney  of  a  ruined  house. 

5.  There  are  several  houses  beside^that  three  miles  farther 

on  towards  Lenox. 

Some,  Something,  and  Somewhat. 

iSome  is  an  adjective  ;  something/  is  a  nonn  ;  someu'hat, 
an  adverb  of  degree. 

iSort  of  and  kind  of  are  commonly  used  instead  of 
somewhat  or  rather. 

1.  Jennie  looks  something  like  her  mother. 

2.  She  feels  some  better  this  morning. 

3.  I  am  kind  of  sorry  that  I  did  not  take  your  advice. 

4.  This  braid  will  be  sort"  of  pretty  put  on  something  like  a 

Grecian  chain. 


CO]\rMON   ERRORS.  149 

Tk    We  came  back  sometbino;  sooner  tban  we  intended. 

6.  Ave  you  tired  after  your  walk?     Yes,  I'm  some  tired. 

7.  Sbe  was  some  provoked  at  my  plain  speaking. 

In  and  Into. 

Into  should  be  used  where  there  is  the  idea  of  motion ; 
^m,  where  there  is  the  idea  of  rest. 

^1.    My  son  lives  in  Lewisboro,  into  a  little  white  house. 
-^2.    Put  some  corn  in  the  measure  and  carry  it  in  the  barn. 
"  3.    She  threw  herself  in  her  old  rocker  and  rocked  vigor- 
ously for  some  minutes. 

4.  The  factory,  two  dwelling-houses,  and  an  adjoining  shed 

were  blown  to  fragments. 

5.  The  large  sheets  of  tin  are  then  cut  in  squares  and  tri- 
ano-les. 


o 


Onto,  On  to,  and  Upon. 

07ito  is  not  a  good  English  word.     Use  upon  unless 
forward  motion  is  suggested. 

1.  "Well,"  said  Harry,  "if  you  don't  hurry,  the  shower 

will  be  onto  you." 

2.  Did  your  friends  go  onto  the  mountain  or  merely  view  it 

from  the  fort? 

3.  Thev  went  onto  the  next  villao;e  that  nioht. 

4.  This  genius  has  written  aU  of  the  ninety-first  Psalm  onto 

a  common  postal  card. 
;").    Applique  embroidery  is  made  by  cutting  out  ornamental 
figures  and  putting  them  onto  velvet  or  other  material. 

Between  and  Among-. 

Between  (by  twain')  should  be  used  in  relation  to  fivo 
objects,  either  of  which  may  be  plural  in  form.     Where 


150  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

more  than  tivo  are  spoken    of,  among  should  be    used 
instead. 

Notice,  also,  the  use  of  "  between  each "  instead  of 
hettveen  each  two,  before  each,  or  after  each. 

1.  No  little  ill-will  was  stirred  up  between  the  various  races 

—  Euglish,  French,  Scotch,  and  Irish  —  who  inhabited 
Canada. 

2.  Two  thousand  dollars  were  divided   between   the   five 

children. 

3.  Between  each  row  of  pear-trees  are  planted  plum-trees. 

4.  Leave  a  blank  line  between  each  of  your  answers  to  tlie 

examination  questions. 

5.  St.  Paul  says,  you  know,  that  we  must  be  at  peace  be- 

tween oui'selves. 

6.  This   arrangement   sandwiches  a  sermon   or  a  biblical 

lecture  between  each  chapter  of  a  story. 

Good  and  Well. 

Good  is  always  a  noun  or  an  adjective.  Well  is  com- 
monl}'  an  adverb,  though  it  may  be  an  adjective,  as  in 
the  sentence,  "He  has  not  had  a  tvell  day  in  five  years." 

1.  Your  buttonholes  are  done  very  good.     It  is  good  to 

know  how  to  do  such  things. 

2.  That  cake  looks  well.     That  dress  fits  good. 

3.  How  is  your  health?     Very  well,  I  thank  you. 

4.  Little  Susie  behaves  very  good  in  church. 

5.  How  does  this  verse  sound  ?    Very  good,  I  should  say. 

Real  and  Very. 

Real  is  an  adjective,  meaning  true,  genuine ;  as  real 
sympathy,  real  point  lace.  It  is  often  wrongly  used  in 
place  of  veri/,  or  extremely,  and  sometimes  in  place  of 
the  adverb  really. 


COMMON   ERRORS.  151 

1.  Our  ooachmaii   is  real  sick,  and  the  doctor  seems  real 

anxious  about  his  case. 

2.  Are  you  real  angry  with  me  ?      I  didn't  think  you  would 

be. 

3.  Most  people  think  that  lawn  tennis  is  a  real  healthy 

game. 

4.  Is  tliis  stone  in  your  ring  reall}^  amethj'st? 

5.  Though  a  real  liomel}"  little  woman,  she  stood  between 

his  genius  and  the  rough  world  like  an  angel  with  a 
flaming  sword. 

MISCELLANEOUS   EXEEOISES. 
No.  1. 

1.  Us  girls  are  getting  up  a  cooking  club. 

2.  Mathematics  are  very  diflieult  for  me. 

3.  Your  4s  look  just  like  7s. 

4.  Any  one  of  these  two  roads  will  take  3-ou  to  town. 

5.  That  style  of  warfare  is,  of  all  others,  the  most  barbarous. 
0.  A  placid  river  winds  between  the  old  and  new  planta- 
tion. / 

7.  Here  is  an  egg  that  was  lay-by  the  speckled  hen. 

8.  I  found  it  lavins;  on  tlie  s;Vouud. 

9.  Many  a  farewell  tear  were  shed. 

10.  The  sum  of  these  angles  are  180°. 

11.  What  made  me  think  of  William  Tell  was  us  going  by 

the  statue  of  he  and  his  son. 

12.  This  construction  sounds  rather  harshly. 

13.  They  look  something  alike,  tor/ 

14.  It  is  a  real  pleasant  evening,  aint  it? 

15.  You  hadn't  ought  to  told  of  it. 

Ifi.    Everybody  says  they  never  see  such  a  neat  housekeeper. 
17.    Which  of  these  ribbons  do  you  prefer  —  the  blue  or 
brown  ? 


152  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

18.  I  dare  say  you  have  heard  of  the  kuight-crrants  of  old. 

19.  Whose  their?     Its  only  me. 

20.  Every  one  of  the  passengers  tell  the  same  stor}'. 

21.  She  watches  me  like  a  cat  watches  a  mouse. 

22.  Of  the  two  bicycles,  the  smallest  is  the  safest. 

23.  Each  of  them  are  admirable  in  their  way. 

24.  An  eagle  is  the  emblem  of  our  glorious  Union. 

25.  Beauty  haunts  the   depths   of    the   earth   and  sea,  and 

gleams  out   in   the   hues  of    the  shell  and  precious 
stone. 

No.  2. 

1.  A  British  and  Yankee  skipper  were  sailing  side  by  side. 

2.  Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  of  any  lake  in  the  world. 
.3.    Six  mouths  interest  is  due,  on  the  first  of  July. 

4.  Scarcely  hud  he  spoken  than  the  fairy  disappeared. 

') .  Teacher,  can  I  please  speak  to  Mary  ? 

(I.  (io  in  the  house  and  lay  down  on  the  sofa. 

7.  We  most  always  make  some  mistakes,  l)ut  not   often 

such  silly  ones. 

8.  The  poor  creature  looked  wretchedly. 

9.  There  are  no  news  from  the  seat  of  war. 

10.  If  any  one  does  not  know  the  reason,  they  should  ask. 

11.  He  don't  know  nothing  about  it. 

12.  You  done  it  as  good  as  I  could. 

13.  No  memoranda  of  the  transaction  was  kept. 

14.  Who  did  the  youngest  daughter  marry? 

15.  Truth  is  greater  than  us  all. 

IG.  Her  eyes  were  positiveh'  blazing,  she  was  that  angry. 

17.  Have  you  tore  your  dress  ? 

18.  Sit  down  that  pan  of  milk. 

19.  How  does  my  dress  set  across  the  shoulders? 

20.  T-i-o-n  are  pronounced  shnn. 

21.  What  did  you  say  was  the  capital  of  Kansas? 

22.  Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 


COMMON   EllROKS.  153 

y - 

23.  I  have  do  doubt  but  nhat  he  can  help  you. 

24.  He  thinks  he  knows  more  llian  auj'^^yl^" 

25.  All  his  ancestors  were  lain  in  their  narrow  graves. 


No.  3. 

1 .    No  sovereign  was  ever  so  much  beloved  by  his  people 

as  Edward. 
■_'.    The  farm  is  a  long  way^  from  a  good  market. 

3.  His  father^  and  mothei-fe  names  were  written  on  the  fly- 

leaf of  his  Bible. 

4.  Mrs.  Brown  has  been   appointed  administrator  of  her 

husband's  estate.  jti^'^u^^Ayz^ 

5.  These  plants  belong  to  different  geuuses. 

6.  Hold  the  box  ap  endways  and  drive  the  nail  sideways. 

7.  "We  reached  home  safel^^  and  happ^fy  after  all  our  mis- 

fortunes. ^',   , 

8.  You  look  as  though  you  have  been  ill. 

'J.    I  will  get  the  prize  by  some  means  or  anotbepr 

10.  Everything  in  the  universe  interlaces  with  one  another. 

11.  Thou,  Nature,  partial  Nature,  I  arraign. 

12.  That  seems  to  be  the  most  universal  opinion. 
V  13.    Don't  feel  so  badly  ;  it  is  done  good  enough. 

14.  Every  one  was  dressed  alike. 

15.  There  have  been  three  famous  talkers  in  Great  Britain, 

either  of  which  would  illustrate  my  remark. 

16.  Her  success  is  neither  the  result  of  system /pr  strategy. 

17.  Most  any  piece  of  old  silk  will  answer  for  the  lining. 

18.  The  second  book  of  the  -^ilneid  is  one  of  the  greatest 

masterpieces  that  ever  was  executed  by  any  hand. 
It).    The  shed  is  built  with  twenty-two  feet  posts. 

20.  The  number  of  inhabitants  are  fully  fifty  thousand. 

21.  No  don't  I. 

22.  Tlie  professor  can  explain  all  the  phenomenon  of  natiu-e. 


154  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

23.    The  3'Onug  mercbaut  worked  hard,  and  by  these  means 

acquh'ed  a  fortune. 
■24.    Four  boys  were  drowude.d  while  bathing  in  the  river. 
25.    How  different  this  village  is  to  what  we  expected  ! 

N  No.  4. 

1.  Among  our  saddest  losses  we  count  friendships  which 

we  once  believed  would  never  have  grown  cold. 

2.  AVill  I  bring  you  a  glass  of  water? 

3.  He  asked  me  would  I  lock  the  door. 

4.  I  scarcely  ever  remember  to  have  seen  such  a  stormy 

night. 

5.  If  it  aint  here,  I  must  look  some  place  else. 

6.  Let's  you  and  I  look  over  these  books. 

7.  I  will  not  kill  ye  ;  let  me  not  call  ye  cowards. 

8t  The  poet  has  his  faults  which  any  one  professing  to  give 
a  critical  estimate  of  his  works,  are  bound  to  point 
out. 

9.  I  am  one  of  those  who  cannot  describe  what  I  do  not 
see. 

10.  On  the  table  there  was  neatly  and  handily  arranged  two 

long  pipes. 

11.  ''No,"  says  I,  "I  knew  it  was  her,  the  minute  I  see 

her." 

12.  I  would  rather  have  my  own  than  any  body  else's. 

13.  I  dout  wish  to  upbraid  you  neither. 

14.  The  question  of  us  going  to  IJoston  is  not  decided. 

15.  Ask  the  murderer,  he  who  has  steeped  his  hands  in  the 

blood  of  another. 

16.  This  new  steam  engine  is  one  of  the  greatest  inventions 

that  has  been  introduced  within  the  last  century. 

17.  Who  should  I  see  but  my  old  friend? 

18.  He    would   have   called   upon   you    if   he    hadn't   went 

earlier  than  what  he  expected  to  have  gone. 


COMMON   ERliOKS.  155 

19.  I  wish  we  was  going  to  have  a  whole  year  of  vacation. 

20.  Hohiies    "The   Chambered  Nautihis "   is   an  exquisite 

poem. 

21.  Was  the  mere  fact  of  Aleck  returning  to  the  home  of 

his  childhood  anything  to  weep  over? 

22.  You  eat  it  with  a  spoon,  like  you  would  custard. 

23.  Between  you  and  I,  its  no  use  of  them  talking  about 

him  running  away. 

24.  A  perfect  woman  is  as  beautiful  as  she  is  strong,  as 

tender  as  she  is  sensible. 

25.  Fire  is  a  better  servant  than  a  master. 

No.  5. 

1.  1  says  to  the  conductor,  "  We're  most  there,  aint  we?" 

2.  Has  the  gas  in  the  hall  been  lit  yet? 

3.  He  could  easily  have  swam  across  if  the  river  had  not 

been  froze. 

4.  Has  the  bell  rang  yet?     Not  as  I  know. 

5.  Where  the  cow  had  laid  down  Cadmus  founded  the  city. 

6.  Take  the  three  first  examples  in  Percentage. 

7.  The  indulgent  father  promised  that  he  should  think  over 

the  plan. 

8.  Plato  believed  that  the  soul  was  immortal. 

9.  Why,  uncle,  thou  has  many  years  to  live. 

10.  The  oldest  son  is  a  lad  whom  I  think  deserves  encour- 

agement. 

1 1 .  Bills  are  requested  to  be  paid  quarterly. 

12.  I  have  ventured  .  .  .  this  many  summers  in  a  sea  of 

glory. 

13.  I  will  be  a  hundred  miles  from  home  by  this  time  to- 

morrow. 

14.  Will  you  be  likely  to  meet  the  postman? 

15.  It  was  my  intention  to  have  arranged  the  parts  in  a  dif- 

ferent order. 


156  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

IG.    Of  a  pleasant  day,  their  most  always  out  walking. 

17.  Ive  beard  that  story  of  her's  no  less  than  a  dozen  times. 

18.  Beside,   the  man  is  in  such  a  feeble  state  that  he  cant 

hardly  stand  up. 

19.  The  urchin  asked  me  would  I  give  him  lief  to  fire  a 

snowball  at  me. 
.20.    In  a  stealthy  fashion  the  old  woman  poured  something 
in  a  cracked  tea-cup  and  put  the  cup  back  in  the 
closet. 

21.  Without  you  miderstand  the  relations  of    words,  you 

can't  read  good,  1  dout  think. 

22.  Longfellow  is  my  favorite  of  all  other  poets. 

23.  Some  public  man  was  mentioned  —  I  forget  whom. 

24.  Men,  Boys,  and  Children's  Suits  for  sale  at  a  great  sac- 

rifice. 

25.  Try  and  remember  all  these  hints. 


REFERENCES. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  English.     Hodgson. 

Mistakes  in  AVriting  English.     Bigelow. 

Five  Hundred  Mistakes  Corrected. 

Words  and  Their  Uses.     Wliite. 

Essentials  of  English.     Welsh. 

Good  English.     Gould. 

Every-Day  English.     AVhite. 

Modern  English.     Hall. 

Historical  Outlines  of  English  Accidence.     Morris. 

The  Queen's  English.     Alford. 

The  Dean's  English.     Moon. 


DICTION.  167 


CHAPTER   VI. 


DICTION. 


Rhetoric  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  modes  of 
expressing  thought  by  means  of  language. 

Diction  is  that  part  of  Rlietoric  whicli  treats  of  the 
selection  and  the  right  use  of  words.  The  most  impor- 
tant qualities  of  good  diction  are  Purity,  Propriety, 
and  Precision. 

PURITY. 

Purity  consists  in  using  such  words  only  as  are  "  pure 
Enghsh." 

A  word  is  said  to  be  pure  when  it  belongs  to  the 
language  as  it  is  at  present  used  by  the  best  writers 
and  speakers. 

"  Use  is  the  law  of  language." 

A  Barbarism  is  a  violation  of  purity. 

CLASSES   OF   BARBARISMS. 

1.  Foreign  words  not  "  domesticated "  or  "  natu- 
ralized." —  In  the  Dictionary,  such  words  are  printed 
in  Italics.  It  sounds  affected  and  pedantic  to  use  a  for- 
eign word  if  there  is  a  word  already  in  the  language 
wliich  means  the  same  thing.  Sometimes,  however,  no 
other  word  would  do  as  well;  for  example,  the  word 
"  pedantic  "  in  this  paragraph. 


158  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

2.  Obsolete    words,    or    words    rarely    used.  —  Ex. 

ycleped^  for  called. 

3.  New  words,  not  sanctioned  by  good  usage. — 

Ex.  dude.  Also  new  meanings  of  old  words,  unless 
sanctioned  by  good  writers  and  speakers.  Ex.  crank, 
an  eccentric  person. 

4.  Incorrectly  formed  words,  or  "hybrids." — Such 
words  sometimes  have  the  stem  from  one  lano;uaa:e,  and 
the  ending  from  another.  Ex.  singist.  Sing  is  Saxon, 
but  ist  is  a  Greek  ending. 

Not  all  such  words  are  to  be  condemned.  Photog- 
1'apher,  for  example,  is  incorrectly  formed,  but  it  is 
more  often  used  than  is  the  correct  formation,  pliotog- 
7'aphist. 

5.  Tecbnical  words,  those  peculiar  to  a  trade,  an 
art,  or  a  science. 

Ex.  awjieaZ  (glass-makiug)  ;  reagfen^  (chemistry) ;  developer 
(photography)  ;  subpoena  (law). 

The  meaning  of  such  terms,  however,  is  often  wi- 
dened, so  that  they  may  not  be  strictly  technical.  To 
illustrate,  the  following  sentences  contain  terms  pecu- 
liar to  Algebra :  — 

Heniy  George  is  the  exponent  of  the  priuciples  of  the 
Anti-Poverty  Society. 

Are  we  to  eliminate  from  our  schools  the  old  history  of 
Greece  and  Rome? 

The  soul  is  an  unJcnovm  quantity. 

6.  Local  or  provincial  words,  peculiar  to  a  place  or 
to  a  part  of  a  country.  Ex.  guess,  right  sniart,  gardeij 
truck. 


DICTION.  159 

7.  Low,  colloquial,  or  vulgar  words.  —  This  class 
includes  all  slang  terms. 

EXEEOISE  IN  PUKITY   OP  DICTION. 

The  words  in  the  following  exercise  are  to  be  criticised 
with  reference  to  their  purity. 

Points  to  be  Considered. 

1 .  Derivation  and  meaning  of  the  word.     Has  the  word  a 

history  ? 

2.  Is  the  word  foreign?     If  so,  is  it  domesticated?     Is  it 

valuable  ? 

3.  Is  it  rare  or  obsolete?     If  so,  what  did  it  once  mean? 

4.  Is  it  new?     Is  it  an  old  word  with  a  new  meaning?     If 

so,  is  it  authorized  by  the  best  writers  and  speakers  ? 

5.  Is  it  correctly  formed?     If  not,  must  we  condemn  it? 
G.    Is  it  technical,  provincial,  or  vulgar  (slang)  ? 

7.    Illustrate  use  and  meanings  of  each  word  by  carefully 
written  sentences. 

Preparation  of  Note-Books.  —  Pupils  should  be  required 
to  copy  into  note-books  what  they  learn  in  regard  to  the 
words  in  the  following  exercise.  Neat  writing  and  orderly 
arrangement  should  be  insisted  upon. 

Model. 
I.    (Derivation  and  History.)      Siesta,  ??.     [Sp. :  Pg.  sesta,  fi'oni 
Lat.  sexta,  the  sixth  hour  after  sunrise,  i.e.  the  hour  of  noon.] 
II.    (Definition.)     A  short  sleep  taken  about  the  middle  of  the 

day,  or  after  dinner. 
III.    (Criticism.)     Foreign  word,  not  domesticated.     An  illustra- 
tion of  a  large  class  of  words  introduced  by  travellers  in 
foreign  countries. 
rV.    (Illnstvation.)     In  Spain  no  business  is  done  during  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day,  as  all  the  inhabitants  are  then  taking  a  siesta. 


160  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

;    V  ^XERCISE. 

1.    Alamode,    alibi,    alias,   acrobat,    affidavit,   adieu,    alraa 
mater,  agnostic.  Anarchist,  athletics. 
^2.    Bric-a-brac,  bonanza,  belladonna,   bogus,   bo3'cott,    bi- 
cycle, bulldoze,  blase,  currentness,  casuality. 

3.  Chef  d'oeuvre,  cabal,  coupon,  celluloid,  campaign  (poli- 

tics), cute,  crank  (person),  cablegi'am,  d^pot,  distingue. 

4.  Dude,    disgruntle,    debris,    employe,   finale,  fiat,   "the 

Dickens,"  Fenian,  gumption,  good-bye. 

5.  Hallelujah,  hegira,  helter-skelter,  incertain,  ignis-fatuus, 
^ignoramus,  item,  idiot,  interviewer,  kirmess. 

6.  Locate,  misaffected,  mugwump,  mandamus,  nee,  nom  de 

plume.  Nihilist,  nobby,  orate,  on  dit. 

7.  Omnibus,  oleomargarine,  optimist,  preventative,  protege, 

parvenu,  patois,  palladium,  plionography,  pessmiist. 

8.  Quorum,  quiz,  quoth,  rendezvous,  rampage,  rebus,  soup- 

gon,  spmtuelle,  sang-froid,  skedaddle. 

9.  Soi-disaut,  saleslady,  siesta,  shibboleth,  stentorian,  soap- 

iue,  sterling,  saunterer,  Socialist,  swell  (adjective). 
10.    Talkist,  telephone,  tawdry,  toboggan,  tete-ji-tete,  type- 
writer, unique,  unexcusable,  wilderness,  waitress. 

For  this  work,  a  recent  edition  of  either  Webster's 
or  Worcester's  Unabridged  Dictionary  is  indisj^ensable. 
Other  books  which  will  furnish  helpful  suggestions 
are :  — 

Words  and  Their  Uses.     "White. 

Good  English.     Gould. 

Words,  Their  Use  and  Abuse.     Matthews. 

Words,  Facts,  and  Phrases.     Edwards. 

Studies  in  English.     Scheie  de  Vera. 

On  the  Study  of  Words.     Trench. 

Leaves  from  a  AVord-Hunter's  Note-Book.     Palmer. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  English.     Hodgson. 


DICTION.  IGl 


PROPRIETY. 


Propriety  of  Diction  consists  in  choosing  such  words 
as  properly  express  the  intended  meaning. 

A  word  or  a  phrase  wliich  does  not  convey  the  idea 
intended  by  the  author  is  an  Impropriety. 

For  example  :  the  word  bring  is  often  improperly  used 
for  take.  A  child  comes  to  his  teacher  with  the  request, 
"  May  I  bring  this  pencil  to  my  sister  in  No.  8?" 

Bring  properly  means  to  convey  from  a  distance  to  a 
nearer  point.  Take  or  carry  would  properly  express 
the  child's  intention,  which  is  to  convey  the  pencil  from 
the  nearer  point  to  one  farther  away. 

Means  of  Attaining  Propriety.  —  The  surest  way 
of  attaining  propriety  of  diction  is  carefully  to  observe 
and  imitate  the  usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speak- 
ers of  the  present  time.  The  Dictionary  is  not  always 
a  safe  guide,  since  it  aims  to  give  all  the  senses  in 
which  a  word  may  be  used.  Among  these  meanings 
are  frequently  found  some  which  are  not  sanctioned 
by  the  best  usage.  We  must  remember,  also,  that 
words  are  continually  losing  old  meanings  and  gain- 
ing new  ones,  so  that  it  is  not  wise  to  copy  the  diction 
of  even  the  best  of  our  eai'lier  writers.  Shakespeare 
and  Milton  wrote  classical  English,  but  they  used 
many  words  in  senses  which  are  no  longer  allowable. 
For  example :  admire  was  used  by  Milton  in  its  Latin 
sense,  to  wonder  at ;  and  station,  as  used  by  Shake- 
speare, meant  a  manner  of  standing. 

Changes  in  the  Meanings  of  Words.  —  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  the  changes  in  meaning  which  words  have 


162  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

undergone.  This  process  is  still  going  on.  A  careful 
study  of  the  supplement  to  one  of  our  large  dictiona- 
ries will  furnish  many  examples  of  words  which,  in  our 
own  day,  have  gained  new  meanings. 

Examples  of  Words  cnANOEi)  in  Meanixo. 

1.  Pupil  origiually  meant  a  fatherless  bo}'  or  gu"l. 

2.  Wretch,  was  foriuerl}'  used  as  a  term  of  endearment. 

3.  Painful  was,   in  the  seventeenth  century,   used  in  the 

sense  of  pains-taking.  Ex.  "Joseph was  a,  painful 
carpenter." 

4.  Damsel  meant  a  young  person  of  either  sex. 

.5.    Gossip  is  a  contraction  of  God-sib  (God-relation),  mean- 
ing a  godfather  or  godmother, 

6.  Nephew  originally  meant  a  grandchikl.      In  the  New 

Testament  occurs  the  passage,  "If  any  widow  have 
children  or  nepheics^'"  the  last  word  being  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Greek  w'ord  meaning  descendants. 

7.  Brave  meant  sJioivy,  splendid. 

8.  Vivacity  was  used  in  the  sense  of  longevity.     It  is  re- 

corded of  a  certain  man  that  he  was  "  most  remark- 
able for  his  vivacity,  for  he  lived  140  years." 

9.  Imp  was  originally  used  in  the  sense  of  progeny,  as  we 

should  use  the  word  child.  For  example,  "  Let  us 
pra}'  for  the  preservation  of  the  King's  most  excellent 
Majesty,  and  for  the  prosperous  success  of  his  be- 
loved sou,  Edward,  our  Prince,  that  most  angelic  imp." 

10.  Improve  meant  originally  to  rebuke,  to  disapprove,  to 

condemn.  Shakespeare  used  the  word  improve  in  the 
sense  to  make  use  of;  and  Milton,  in  the  sense  of  to 
increase. 

11.  Idiot  was  applied  to  a  person  in  private  life  ;  one  who 

took  no  part  in  public  affairs. 


DICTION.  163 

12.  Carriage  was  formerly  used   in  the  sense  of  baggaye. 

In  Acts  xxi.  1;'),  we  liud  tliiH  passage:  "And  after 
those  days  we  took  up  our  carriages  and  went  up  to 
Jerusalem.  This  means  "  We  took  up  our  burdens" 
or  "  We  made  ready  our  baggage." 

13.  Demerit  formerly  meant  just  the  opposite  of   what  it 

does  now.  An  ancient  liistor}'  of  England  speaks  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  as  having  l)een  "  for  his  de- 
merits escribed  emonge  the  Saincts."  In  modern 
times,  persons  are  enrolled  among  the  sinners,  for  the 
same  cause. 

Etymolog-y  an  Unsafe  Guide.  —  It  is  not  always  safe 
to  assume  that  the  present  meaning  of  a  word  is  that 
indicated  by  its  etymology.  The  following  are  exam- 
ples of  words,  the  etymological  meaning  of  which  is 
not  sanctioned  by  present  usage :  — 

1.  Urbane,  living  in  a  city. 

2.  Prevent,  to  go  before.     The  word  is  used  in  this  sense  in 

the  Bible.  Ex.  "  I  prevented  the  dawning  of  the 
morning." 

3.  Miser,  a  miserable  person. 

4.  Impertinent,  not  pertinent,  not  pertaining  to  the  matter 

in  hand. 

5.  Censure,  opinion  either  good  or  bad. 

6.  Reduce,   to  bring  back.      Ex.  "  A  good  man  will  go  a 

little  out  of  his  road  to  reduce  the  wandering  tra\'- 
eler." 

7.  Depart  had  originally  the  meaning  of  dividing  or  sepa- 

rating. The  clause  in  the  marriage  service,  "  till 
death  us  do  part"  originally  read,  "till  death  us 
depart." 


164  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

EXERCISE  IN  PEOPEIETY   OF  DICTION. 

The  reference  books  already  mentioned  will  be  of  assist- 
ance in  correcting  the  following  iniiiroprieties.  lu  most 
cases  the  Dictionary  will  suggest  the  proper  word  to  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  Italicized  word. 

Model. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  word  audience  is  an  impropriety. 
Audience  comes  from  the  Latin  ciiulio,  to  hear,  and  means,  there- 
fore, an  assembly  of  hearers.  But  we  know  from  the  sentence  that 
the  people  had  come  to  see,  not  to  hear;  so  the  word  should  be 
spectators,  from  the  Latin  specto,  to  behold.  The  sentence  should 
read,  Every  one  of  the  spectators,  etc. 

Exercise. 

1.  Every  one  of  the  audience  held  his  breath  while  the 

fearless  girl  danced  along  the  rope,  far  above  the 
heads  of  the  people. 

2.  Your  son's  writing  is  bad  enough,  but  his  spelling  is 

positively  cmful. 

3.  The  last   magazine    contains  a  poem  on    "Our  Dead 

Singer,"  alluding  to  Longfellow. 

4.  Mrs.  Caudle's  style  of  conversation  is  enough  to  aggra- 

vate a  saint. 

5.  I  alloiD  that  no  woman  is  going  to  order  me  around. 

6.  It  will  be  apt  to  rain  on  Saturday  if  you  are  going  on  a 

•  picnic. 

7.  Hannibal  saw  before  hira  three  alternatives,  —  to  march 

upon  Rome,  to  attack  the  army  of  Claudius  Nero,  and 
to  wait  for  reinforcements  from  Carthage. 

8.  For  the  house  and  lot  I  paid  ten  thousand  dollars,  three 

thousand  dollars  down,  and  the  balance  in  six  months. 

9.  Having  received  your  kind  invitation  to  visit  you  this 

summer,  I  write  to  say  that  I  am  sorry  I  cannot  go. 


DICTION.  165 

10.  You  might  come  for  at  least  a  conple  of  days. 

11.  George  P^liot  was  buried  ou  a  stormy  day  that  was  cal- 

culated to  test  the  love  of  the  frieuds  who  were  present 
at  the  funeral. 

12.  It  was  afterwards  discovered  that  the  woman  was  inno- 

cent of  the  charge  and  liighly  respectable  in  every  way, 
but  of  course  her  character  was  ruined  by  the  affair. 

13.  His  style  of  living  corresjwyided  with  his  means. 

11.    AVe  have  just  five  minutes  in  which  to  catch  the  train. 

15.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Jenkins  considers  dancing  as  one  o£^the 
deadly  sins. 

IG.  The  gallant  captain  took  the  battery,  but  his  company 
was  sadly  decimated  during  the  charge,  nearly  half  of 
the  men  beino;  killed  and  raanv  others  wounded. 

17.  "At  four  o'clock,"  said  Mrs.  Lofty,  "we  will  all  drive 

in  the  park.  Oh,  yes,  to  be  sure  !  my  coachman  will 
drive  7 is." 

18.  Our  servant  girl  says  that  she  will  not  demean  herself 

any  longer  by  living  with  ladies  that  spend  so  much 
time  in  the  kitchen. 

19.  The  United  States  has  so  greatly  encouraged  emigration 

that  it  now  finds  itself  embarrassed  l)y  certain  foreign 
elements  of  population  which  have  become  too  power- 
ful. 

20.  When  the  fisherman's  wife  heard  the  news,  she  seemed 

deeply  effected. 

21.  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  except  your  kind  invitation 

for  Tluarsday. 

22.  I  expect  that  my  grandfather  was  rather  a  wild  lad,  in 

his  day. 

23.  Tliis   institution   furnishes  exceptionable    advantages  to 

students  wishing  to  pursue  au  advanced  course  of 
study. 

24.  How  much  further  is  it  to  Boston  by  the  other  road  ? 


IGG  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

25.  The  children  got  very  hungry  before  Ave  got  to  town. 

26.  By  running  down  a  narrow  alle}',  the  thief  Uladed  his 

piu'suers. 

27.  Everything  about  the  house  proolaimed  that  its  owner 

was  an  individual  of  taste. 

28.  Aunt  ]\Iary  is  going  to  learn  us  how  to  play  chess. 

29.  I  love  baked  apples  and  cream. 

30.  There  were  not  less  than  a  hundred  persons  at  the  meet- 

ing. 

31.  Our  neighbor's  trees  are  full  of  apples,  but  we  shall  not 

have  so  mxicli  as  we  had  last  year. 

32.  Isn't  our  Algebra  lesson  lovely? 

33.  Mr.  Fisher  is  a  mutual  friend  of  John's  and  mine. 

34.  It  seems  funvij  that  the  girls  did  not  put  on  mourning 

for  their  grandfather. 

35.  The  Scotts  are  so  nice  that  I  know  we'll  have  a  nice  time 

visiting  them. 

36.  This  very  result  was  predicated  in  our  columns,  three 

months  ago. 

37.  Who  was  that  fat  old  jmrty  who  kept  us  all  laughing? 

38.  In  the  solitude  of  his  cell  the  condemned  msLH  j^artook  of 

his  last  meal. 

39.  Edith  always  says   ^'■lots  of  folks"    wlien   she    means 

"  c/uantities  of  persons." 

40.  You  have  as  much  rigid  to  get  ten  demerits  as  I  have. 

41.  Hoping  to  hear  from  you  again,  I  remain,  Yours  respec- 

tively. 

42.  Our  new  teacher  is  just  perfectly  splendid.     His  eyes 

are  elegant. 

43.  The  Governor  is  stopping  in  town  for  a  few  days. 

44.  Set  the  sum  under  the  column  of  ones,  and  so  proceed 

with  each  column  successfully. 

45.  Many  years  have  now  transjiired  since  Sumter's  guns 

woke  the  nation  to  a  sense  of  its  peril. 


I 


DICTION.  1  ()7 

4G.    Please  excuse  my  daugliter  for  absence.      She  had  the 
teethache. 

47.  Tell  3'our  mother  that  if  she  is  too  bus}'  to  write,  she 

may  send  me  a  verbal  message  by  you. 

48.  Polly  ioants  me  to  let  my  whiskers  grow. 

49.  You  will  be  liable  to  find  a  fisliing-rod  at  the  corner 

store. 
5U.    He  is  well  posted  iu  regard  to  the  management  of  rail- 
roads. 

PRECISION. 

Synonyms.  —  Attention  has  already  been  called  to 
the  fact  that  we  have  in  English  many  instances  of 
words  which  come  from  different  sources,  but  which 
have  the  same  general  meaning;  for  example,  yearly 
and.  annual,  happiness  and  felicity,  bodily  and  physical, 
spelling  and  orthography.  In  many  cases,  we  have  more 
than  two  words  which  express  the  same  general  idea; 
as,  for  example,  aged,  ancient,  antique,  antiquated,  and 
obsolete,  all  of  which  have  the  meaning  of  old.  All  of 
these  words  of  like  meaning  are,  therefore,  said  to  be 
synonymous,  and  they  are  called  synonyms.  No  other 
language  is  so  rich  in  synonyms  as  is  the  English, 
owing  to  its  composite  character. 

Importance    of    the    Study    of    Synonyms.  —  We 

notice  that,  while  all  the  words  in  the  last  example 
have  the  same  general  idea,  each  has  its  own  particular 
force  and  application.  We  say  "  an  ancient  temple," 
"an  aged  man,"  '■'■antique  jewelry,"  '■^antiquated  ap- 
parel," "  an  obsolete  word  " ;  but  not  an  ancient  hat,  an 
antique  soldier,  or  an  aged  word.  From  this  illustra- 
tion, we  see  how  necessary  it  is  to  study  the  distinctions 


168  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

between  words  which  ai-e  nearly  synonymous.  If  we 
would  learn  to  express  our  thoughts  with  clearness, 
accuracy,  and  force,  we  must  be  precise  in  our  choice 
of  words. 

Precision  of  Diction  consists  in  choosing  from  syn- 
onymous terms  those  which  best  express  the  ideas  to  be 
convejed.  The  word  precision  is  from  the  Latin  prceei- 
dere^  to  cut  off:  and  has  the  idea  of  cutting  off  all  ideas 
except  the  one  which  we  wish  to  express. 


REFERENCES. 

Dictionary  of  Sjnionyms.     Crabb. 

Synonyms  Discriminated.     Smitli. 
Tliesaurus  of  English  Words.     Roget. 


EXERCISE   IN  PEECISION. 

(a)  Learn  distinctions  in  meaning,  and  copy  them  into 
a  note-book,  for  reference  in  review. 

(6)  Illustrate,  by  an  original  sentence,  the  precise  use 
of  each  word. 

(c)    Insert  the  proper  word  in  each  blank. 

Abandon,  desert,  forsake. 

1.  At  the   approach  of  winter,  the  birds  .  .  .  their  nests, 

and  fly  towards  the  south. 

2.  The  heartless  mother  .  .  .  her  child,  leaving  it  to  the 

charity  of  strangers. 

3.  No  true  soldier  will  .  .  .  his  post  in  the  hour  of  danger. 

4.  What  sadder  sight  than  a  .  .  .  house,  what  more  griev- 

ous lot  than  that  of  a  ...  wife  ! 

5.  The  captain  ...  his  ship  to  the  mercy  of  the  waves. 


DICTION.  169 

Absolve,  exonerate,  acquit. 

1.  After  a  loug  trial,  the  prisoner  was  .  .  .  l)y  the  iutelli- 

geut  jury. 

2.  It  having  transpired  that  John  was  the  real  offender, 

his  brother  was  .  .  .  from  the  charge. 

3.  "  Why,  Mary,"  said  her  mistress,  "  do  you  believe  that 

the  priest  can  .  .  .    you  from  the  sin  of  stealing?" 
.  4.    I  accept  your  apology  and  .  .  .  you  from  all  blame. 

Aged,  ancient,  antique,  antiquated,  obsolete,  old. 

1.  This  parchment  scroll  written  in  capitals  is  a  .  .  .  book. 

2.  My  .  .  .  friend,  Mrs.  Collins,  has  a  .  .  ,  father. 

3.  A  dress  made  fifty  years  ago  looks  not  so  very  .  .  .  now, 

but,  on  the  contrar}',  almost  stylish. 

4.  We  saw  an  elegant  silver  vase  of  .  .  .  design,  but  of 

recent  manufacture. 

5.  The  word  misajfected  is  now  ...  . 

6.  I  found  in  the  garret  a  .  .  .  History  of  Rome,  and,  in 

spite   of   its  .  .  .   style,  I  became  deeply  interested 
in  its  account  of  that  .  .  ,  nation. 

7.  My  brother  has  a  collection  of  .  .  .  coins,  including  an 

almost  complete  set  of  United  States  pennies,  and 
a  few  .  .  .  specimens  of  the  money  used  by  the  .  .  . 
Greeks  and  Romans. 
8  Her  costume  was  .  .  .  enough  to  be  worn  at  an  Old 
Folks'  Concert,  and  I  couldn't  help  laughing,  where- 
upon my  .  .  .  relative  remarked  that  reverence  for  the 
.  .  .  must  be  .  .  .  in  these  days. 

Avow,  acknowledge,  confess,  admit. 

1.  The  two  older  brothers  .  .  .  their  intention  of  enlisting 
in  the  arm}^,  and  when  questioned,  .  .  .  that  they  had 
already  visited  the  recruiting  otiicer. 


170  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

2.  I  .  .  .  my  fault.     I  .  .  .  my  sin.     I  .  .  .  my  purpose  to 

do  better  in  the  future. 

3.  With  shame  I  .  .  .  that  you  are  right  in  thinking  tliat  I 

only  half  believe  the  principles  which  I  .  .  .  . 

4.  She  .  .  .  that  she  had  whispered  and  .  .  .  her  intention 

of  doing  it  again  under  like  circumstances. 

Account,  description,  narrative,  narration,  recital. 

1.  I  listened,  as  patiently  as  possible,  to  the  ...  of  her 

numerous  trials,  real  and  imaginary. 

2.  Have  you  read  the  ...  of  that  awful  railroad  accident? 

The  ...  of  the  scenes  about  the  wreck  is  heart- 
rending. 

3.  No  one  who  heard  her  relate  the  anecdote  can   doubt 

that  she  has  wonderful  powders  of  ...  . 

4.  The  ...  of  the  life  of    a  missionary's  famih'  occupies 

the  opening  chapters.  Then  follows  a  fine  ...  of  the 
island  itself,  and  a  .  .  .  of  the  thrilling  events  of  the 
sixth  of  August. 

5.  The  commander  of  the  fort  refused  to  hear  the  ...  of 

the  Indian's  wrongs,  so  the  chief  strode  away,  thirst- 
ing for  revenge. 

Attend,  hearken,  listen. 

1.  It  is  impolite  to  ...  to  conversation  which  is  not  in- 

tended for  our  ears. 

2.  You  will  find  no  difficulty  in  doing  the  examples,  if  yon 

...  to  the  explanation. 

3.  Young   persons  should   ...   to  the  counsels  of  their 

elders. 

4.  ...  unto  the  words  of  our  great  white  father  in  Wash- 

ington. 

5.  The  frightened  mother  .  .  .  ,  dreading  to  hear  the  sound 

again. 


DICTION.  171 

At  last,  at  length. 

1.  Having  been  delayed  by  an  accident  to  the  stage,  and 

having  ahnost  missed  the  train  in  consequence,  we 
were  ...  on  our  wa}'  to  the  city. 

2.  The  lawsuit   had   been  in  progress  for  ten  years,  and 

was  .  .  .  settled  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff. 

3.  Still  young  but  weary  with    hope   deferred,   the  dying- 

woman  sighed,  "  .  .  .1  shall  find  rest." 

4.  Have  you  come  .  .  .  ?    I've  been  waiting  nearly  an  hour. 

Discover,  invent. 

1.  The  steam-engine  is  one  of  the  greatest  .  .  .  of  this  age. 

2.  It  is  said  that  Pythagoras  .  .  .  the  proposition  that  the 

square  on  the  longest  side  of  a  right-angled  triangle 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the  other  two 
sides. 

3.  Many  men  are  at  work  trying  to  .  .  .  an  electric  motor 

that  shall  not  have  this  disadvantage. 

4.  Doubtless  not  all  the  properties  of  electricity  have  yet 

been  .... 

5.  AVhitney  .  .  .  the  cotton  gin  ;   and  Morse,  the  electric 

telegraph. 

Only,  alone. 

1.  She  ...  of  all  the  family,  had  courage  to  go  .  .  .  into 

that  darkened  room. 

2.  Man  shall  not  live  b}'  bread  .... 

3.  They  differ  on  .  .  .  one  point,  but  that  .  .  .  is  a  suffi- 

cient cause  for  uuhai)piness. 

4.  The  .  .  .  survivor  of  all  the   ship's   company  lived  for 

many  years  ...  on  a  desert  island. 

5.  .  .  .  virtue  can  make  us  happy.     Virtue  .  .  .  can  make 

us  happy. 


172  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

Solecism,  impropriety,  barbarism. 

1.  I  did  not  notice  any  ...  in  his  conduct,  but  certain  .  .  . 

like  "  he  don't"  betrayed  his  hick  of  culture. 

2.  Telegram  is  a  reputable  word,  but  cablegram  is  a  ...  . 

3.  Shootist  is  a  ...  ;    had  went,  a  .  .  .  ;    and  got  sleepy 

is  a  ...  . 

4.  The  use  of  jjractical  for  practicable  is  a  common  .... 

Sufficient,  enough. 

1.  Have  you  ,  .  .  courage  to  carry  you  through  this  ordeal? 

2.  Many  people  have  money  .  .  .  for  all  their  needs,  but 

very  few  have  .  .  .  money,  and  I  never  heard  of  any- 
body who  thought  he  had  too  much. 

0.  A  greed}-  child  never  has  .... 

4.  It  is  .  .  .  for  me  to  know  that  heaven  is  a  place  of  rest. 

5.  We  have  .  .  .  proof  of  his  disloyalty  to  warrant  us  in 

treating  him  with  coldness. 

Pale,  pallid,  wau. 

1.  In  the  moonlight,  the  sufferer's  face  looked  .   .  .  and 

worn. 

2.  A  slight  flush  came  over  the  .  .  .  face  of  the  sick  gu'l. 

3.  And  there,  their  .  .  .  faces  pinched  with  the  cold,  hov- 

ered the  children  of  povert^^ 

4.  Miss  B.  wore  a  charmino;  costume  of  .  .  .  green. 


&* 


Opportunity,  occasion. 

1.  If  you  have  ...  to  go  to  the  village  this  afternoon, 

will  you  seize  the  ...  to  inquire  if  our  tea-kettle  is 
mended  ? 

2.  I  frequently  have  ...  to  call  upon  Mrs.  Fox,  in  con- 

nection with  our  work  for  the  poor  children  of  the 
church. 


DICTION.  173 

3.  The  short  noon  recess  gives   but  little  .  .  .  for  going 

home  to  dinner. 

4.  The  teacher  took  ...  to  say  to  his  class,  "You  are 

neglecting  golden  .  .  .  ." 

5.  On  such  ....  she  wore  a  marvellous  black  silk  apron. 

Kill,  murder,  assassinate. 

1.  President  Lincoln  was  .... 

2.  After  .   .   .  his   employer,  the   wretch   returned   to  the 

barn  and  resumed  his  occupation  of  .  .  .  and  dressing 
turkeys  for  market. 

3.  The  king  was  .  .  .  bv  a  man  who  shot  an  arrow  at  him 

from  behind  a  great  tree  in  the  forest. 

4.  Forty-seven  persons  were  ...  by  the  explosion  of  a 

boiler. 

5.  Mr.  Gilbert  .  .  .  the  burglar  in  the  act  of  carrying  off 

his  booty. 

Consist  in,  consist  of. 

1.  Diction,  as  considered  in  this  work,  .  .  .  three  parts: 

Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision. 

2.  Good  order  .  .  .  quiet  attention  to  the  duty  of  the  hour. 

3.  True  happiness  does  not  .   .   .  having  everything  our 

own  way. 

4.  The  air  .  .  .  two  gases,  —  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXEKOISES   IN  DICTION. 

1.    Write  the  following  correctly  in  all  respects  :  — 

New  haven  June  22  1887  My  dear  friend  I  expect  you 
are  aggravated  with  me  because  I  have  not  written  to 
3^ou  but  I  have  had  a  couple  of  our  mutual  friends 
stopping  with  me  and  they  would  not  do  anything  or 
go  anywhere  without  I  went  to  one  morning  we  went 


174  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

fishing  but  it  was  so  hot  we  got  awful  tiled  and  eould 
not  go  any  further  and  when  Ave  got  home  we  were  gh\d 
to  lay  down  in  fact  we  spent  the  Ijalance  of  the  day  in 
the  house  and  the  next  day  we  were  all  two  much  used 
up  to  go  to  the  tennis  tournament  where  there  was  to  be 
some  exceptionable  playing  by  some  swell  players  who 
had  excepted  a  challenge  from  our  club  none  of  our 
boys  play  like  they  do  of  course  but  we  lost  less  games 
than  we  expected  too  and  I  guess  the}'  were  surprised 
at  this  for  they  had  not  considered  us  as  having  mucli 
of  a  character  as  players  we  felt  dreadfully  disappointed 
at  missing  the  fun  father  dont  say  much  but  he  allows 
we  have  been  learned  a  lesson  we  will  not  be  apt  to  for- 
get neither  of  we  three  fellows  have  wanted  to  go  fish- 
ing since  that  time  many  other  events  have  transpired 
during  these  few  weeks  but  I  must  complete  my  letter 
at  once  if  it  is  to  go  to  you  to-day 

Yours  respectively 

2.  Substitute  the  correct  words  for  those  which  have  not 
proper  authority,  and  underline  any  foreign  words 
which  are  not  domesticated. 

Mrs.  Jones,  nee  Smith,  called  upon  me  Tuesday. 
Knowing  that  she  was  coming,  I  arrayed  myself  in  my 
new  dress  which  gives  me  a  really  distingue  look  (I  sup- 
pose because  it  has  only  a  soupgon  of  color  in  it) ,  and 
seated  myself  on  a  fauteuil.  Mrs.  Jones's  husband  is 
only  an  employe  of  Kent  &  Co.,  but  his  wife  imagines 
herself  an  fait ;  and  as  I  did  not  wish  to  jeopardize  the 
good  opinion  which  she  seems  to  have  of  me,  I  prepared 
to  receive  her  a  la  mode.  We  talked  of  various  things  : 
of  the  trouble  she  had  had  to  get  a  new  waitress  ;  of  the 
place  in  which  her  brother  is  going  to  locate  ;  of  musi- 
cal matters,  for  Mrs.  J.  is  a  great  singist ;  and  finally  of 


DICTION.  175 

belles-lettres.  Then  iny  caller  nuide  her  exit,  aucl  biulc 
me  au  revoii*,  promisiug  soon  to  speud  au  evening  with 
me  ;  that  is,  if  her  husband,  who  is  not  noted  for  his 
gallantness,  would  accorapauy  her. 

;).  Ke-write  the  above  extract,  inserting,  as  far  as  possible, 
good  English  words  in  place  of  the  foreign  words  and 
phrases. 

1.  Write  a  composition,  including  as  many  as  possible  of 
the  one  hundred  words  in  the  Exercise  on  Purity. 
Underline  the  words  taken  from  the  exercise. 

The  following  sketch,  written  by  a  pui)il,  contains  ninety- 
tlu'ce  words  out  of  the  one  hundred  which  w^ere  assio-ned 
for  study,  the  list  differing  somewhat  from  the  one  in  this 
chapter. 

Mrs.  Ensign's  Reception. 

Mrs.  Ensign  sat  in  her  parlor  receiving  guests  on  her 
reception  day.  Her  first  caller  was  Mrs.  Gerard,  who  was 
di'essed  in  a  costume  made  d,  la  mode,  with  a  soupgon  of  pea- 
cock green  in  the  trimming.  Her  efforts  to  appear  distingue 
were  not  wholly  successful.  After  the  usual  greetings,  she 
said:  "I  have  just  come  from  the  studio  of  the  famous 
artist,  who  has  just  completed  a  picture  which  is  considered 
his  chef  d'oeuvre.  His  studio  is  the  rendezvous  for  lovers  of 
art  and  literature,  as  the  gentleman  is  also  gifted  as  a  tcdkist 
and  elocutist,  and  has  even  been  known  to  orate  impromptu 
on  the  palladi^ini  of  the  people's  rights  and  the  shibboleth  of 
opposed  factions  ;  but  he  has  attended  so  many  fetes  that  he 
is  already  quite  blase.  His  studio  is  furnished  beautifully, 
though  the  curtains  are  rather  tawdry.  He  has  some  lovely 
bric-ci-brac,  and  some  unique  ornaments.  There  is  a  beau- 
tiful dado  around  the  base  of  the  paper,  and  several  decalco- 
manias  on  the  wall  add  greatly  to  the  general  effect. 


176  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

"  By  the  way,"  she  went  ou,  "  have  you  heard  the  latest 
on  dit?  The  charmiug  widow  Green  ne'e  P'aushawe  is  soon 
to  marry  the  soi-disant  count,  who  is  said  to  be  very  rich, 
although  his  rank  is  an  imposture.  Her  relatives  wish  he 
were  at  the  antipodes,  and  say  that  he  made  his  money  in  a 
factory  for  the  manufacture  of  celluloid  bracelets,  caramels, 
and  cachous.  But  she  was  never  very  docibk,  and  was 
always  suspected  of  disobedientness ;  so  it  is  probable  that 
she  will  take  her  own  wa}'  in  the  matter. 

"I  have  just  heard  from  my  husband,"  she  continued, 
"  who  is  now  in  Liverpool,  but  he  does  not  enthuse  over  that 
city,  and  is  anxious  to  be  again  in  a  cisatlantic  town  and 
among  occidental  manners  and  customs.  He  says  that  Eng- 
land and  Russia  will  soon  arrive  at  an  idtimatum,  although 
there  is  a  cabal  trying  to  put  preventatives  in  their  way,  and 
for  that  reason  they  are  in  an  incertain  state. 

"I  must  go  now,"  she  said,  rising,  "as  I  must  take  a 
siesta  and  then  go  to  the  dejjot  to  meet  Miss  Lester,  a  pro- 
tegee of  mine,  for  whose  benefit  I  am  to  enact  the  rdle  of 
chaperon  at  a  swell  reception  which  has  been  on  the  tapis  for 
several  weeks."     And  with  this  remark  she  departed. 

The  next  caller  was  a  lady  who  had  a  sad  story  to  tell. 

"Imagine  my  surprise,"  she  said,  "  when  the  wench  whom 
I  have  employed  as  waitress  came  to  my  room  and  said,  in  a 
very  suggestive  way,  that  a  person  must  either  be  an  idiot  or 
without  gumption  to  think  that  a  scdary  of  two  dollars  a 
week  was  enough  for  a  first-class  waiter  lady.  She  further 
informed  me  that  she  was  going  to  accept  a  position  as  sales- 
lady in  a  store  where  the  principal  stock  in  trade  consisted 
of  tioine  and  thread  and  soapine  and  scrubine;  and  with  that 
announcement  she  made  her  exit. 

"Have  you  heard,"  the  guest  continued,  "about  the 
Smiths  ?  They  have  suddenly  become  rich  through  a  specu- 
lation which  at  first  seemed  to  be  an  ignis  fatuus,  but  which 


DICTION.  177 

has  turned  out  a  bonanza.  They  are  parvennes,  however, 
and  will  not  be  received  into  good  society.  They  still  speak 
in  the  patois  of  the  region  from  which  they  came.  It  is  said 
that  one  of  the  sons  was  an  acrobat,  but  is  now  quite  a  dude, 
and  wears  nobby  suits  from  Paris.  Another  son  is  said  to 
liave  received  a  dij^lo^na  from  Yale,  and  is  very  fond  of 
alluding  to  his  alma  mater;  but  he  must  have  forgotten  all 
that  he  learned  there,  for  he  is  now  quite  an  ignoramus. 
During  the  recent  campaign  he  figured  as  a  mugwump  and  a 
filibuster,  but  since  that  excitement  was  over,  he  has  been 
known  as  a  saunterer  who  is  always  disgruntled  with  every- 
thing. Mr.  Smith  has  strong  agnostic  tendencies,  and  is 
chiefly  proud  of  his  pounds  sterling  and  of  his  youngest 
daughter,  a  lovely  spirituelle  child,  who  seems  to  be  quite  out 
of  place  beside  her  cockyiey  brothers. 

"Have  you  heard,"  she  said,  "that  the  famous  author 
who  wrote  under  the  nom-de-phime  of  '■Nihilist'  took  so 
much  belladonna  by  mistake  that  for  a  time  his  friends 
feared  that  he  would  not  recover,  and  ordered  a  magnificent 
hearse  and  sarcophagus  in  case  he  should  need  thera?  He 
has  recovered,  however,  and  the  doctor  has  ordered  him  to 
go  either  to  some  tcilderness  or  to  a  pla.teau  to  recuperate." 

After  a  few  more  remarks,  the  lady  took  her  leave. 

The  next  caller  was  a  lawyer  with  a  stentorian  voice. 
"  This  very  warm  weather,"  he  said,  "  has  caused  an  hegira 
of  people  to  the  seaside,  thereby  considerably  decreasing  the 
populosity  of  the  town.  I  should  also  go  into  the  country, 
I)ut  the  Supreme  Court  has  issued  a  mandamus  that  the  case 
in  which  I  am  to  plead  shall  be  tried  instanter;  and  as  the 
fiat  has  gone  forth,  T  must  obey.  In  this  case,  James  Wil- 
liams alias  Brown  is  trying  to  prove  an  alibi.  On  the  first 
day  of  the  trial,  he  will  make  his  affidavit  that  he  is  neither  a 
Fenian  nor  a  maker  of  rebuses.  All  through  his  imprison- 
ment he  has  maintained  the  utmost  sang-froid,  but  also  n 


178  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

rongli  sort  of  gallant ness  which  has  won  for  him  the  favor  of 
the  prison  ofHcials.  Unless  some  unforeseen  casuality  should 
occur,  I  think  he  will  win  the  case  ;  and  I  shall  l)e  rigJit  glad 
if  he  does." 

After  some  trifling  remarks  about  the  weather,  the  lawj'er 
departed,  and  Mrs.  Ensign's  reception  day  was  over. 


ADDITIOXAL   REFERENCES. 

A  Book  about  AVords.     Graham. 

All  about  Hard  Words, 

Common  Words  with  Curious  Derivations.     Smith. 

Dictionary  of  Ai-chaic  and  Provincial  Words.     Halliwell. 

Dictionary  of  Americanisms.     Bartlett. 

Americanisms.     Scheie  De  Vera. 

Lost  Beauties  of  the  English  Language.     Mackay. 

Standard  English.     Oliphant. 

Essentials  of  English.     Welsh. 

A  Dictionary  of  English  Synonymes.     Soule. 

Practical  Rhetoric.     Clai'k. 

Discriminate:  A  Companion  to  "Don't." 

The  Philosophy  of  Words.     Garlanda. 

The  English  Language.     Meiklejohn, 

The  Slang  Dictionary. 


aE:>!TENCES.  179 


.  CHAPTER   VII. 

SENTENCES. 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  expression  of  thought  as 
makes  complete  sense,  and  is  followed  by  a  full  pause. 

Grammatical  Classification  of  Sentences. 

1.  A  Simple  Sentence  contains  but  one  proposition. 
Ex.    "  The  suu  shines." 

2.  A  Complex  Sentence  contains  one  independent 
proposition  and  one  or  more  dependent  propositions. 

Ex.    "  The  sun  shuies,  even  when  we  do  not  see  it." 

3.  A  Compound  Sentence  contains  two  or  more  co- 
ordinate propositions. 

Ex.    "  The  suu  shines,  and  the  earth  is  glad." 

Rhetorical  Classification. 

As  considered  in  Rhetoric,  sentences  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  according  to  their  construction. 

1.  A  Periodic  Sentence  does  not  complete  the  main 
tliought  until  the  close  of  the  sentence. 

Ex.  "  Having  been  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Jamaica, 
during  one  of  his  voyages,  and  reduced  to  the  verge  of  star- 
vation by  the  want  of  provisions  which  the  natives  refused 
to  supply,  Columbus  took  advantage  of  their  ignorance  of 
astronomy." 


180  LESSONS    TN   ENGLISH. 

2.  A  Loose  Sentence  is  so  constructed  that  it  may 
be  brought  to  a  close  in  two  or  more  places  and  in  each 
case  make  complete  sense. 

Ex.  "  We  made  our  way  up  the  mountain,  |  riding  in  tlie 
shade  of  lofty  birches,  |  occasionally  crossing  the  path  of 
some  clear  mountain  stream,  |  but  hearing  no  human  voice  | 
and  seldom  even  the  chirp  of  bird  or  insect." 

3.  A  Balanced  Sentence  is  made  up  of  two  mem- 
bers which  are  similar  in  form,  but  often  contrasted  in 
meaning. 

Ex.  "Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go;  and 
when  he  is  old,  he  will  not  depart  from  it."  "  Worth  makes 
the  man  ;  the  want  of  it,  the  fellow." 

Effects  of  Different  Kinds  of  Sentences. 

Too  many  loose  sentences  give  an  impression  of  care- 
lessness. 

Too  many  periodic  sentences  make  the  style  stiff  and 
monotonous. 

Balanced  sentences  are  well  suited  to  satire  or  to 
essays  in  which  persons  or  things  are  contrasted.  Tliey 
are  not  suitable  in  narrative  or  description. 

Antithesis  is  commonly  expressed  by  the  use  of  the 
balanced  sentence. 

Rule  as  to  Kinds  of  Sentences. 

Study  variety.  The  mind  tires  of  any  one  style  of 
construction  carried  to  excess. 


SENTENCES.  181 

EXEKOISE. 

(a)  Classify  the  follovviug  sentences,  witli  regard  to  gram- 
matical and  rhetorical  construction. 

(b)  Change  the  loose  sentences  to  the  periodic  form. 

1.  There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing; 
tliere  is  that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath  great  riches. 

2.  The  great  burdens  he  had  borne,  the  terrible  anxieties 
and  perplexities  that  had  poisoned  his  life,  and  the 
peaceful  scenes  he  had  forever  left  behind,  swept  across 
his  memory. 

3.  A  man  may  be  loyal  to  his  government,  and  yet 
oppose  the  peculiar  principles  and  methods  of  the  ad- 
ministration. 

4.  He  paced  up  and  down  the  walk,  forgetful  of  every- 
thing around  him,  and  intent  only  on  some  subject  that 
absorbed  his  mind,  his  hands  behind  him,  his  hat  and 
coat  off,  and  his  tall  form  bent  forward. 

5.  The  sad  sincerity,  the  fine  insight,  and  the  amazing 
vividness  and  picturesque  felicity  of  the  style,  make  the 
"Reminiscences  "  a  remarkable  book. 

G.  '-'- 1  cannot  do  it"  never  accomplished  anything;  "/ 
toill  try"  has  wrought  wonders. 

7.  History  is  a  mighty  drama,  enacted  upon  the  theatre 
of  time,  with  suns  for  lamps,  and  eternity  for  a  back- 
ground. 

8.  If  you  look  about  you  and  consider  the  lives  of  others 
as  well  as  your  own  ;  if  you  think  how  few  are  born 
with  honor,  and  how  many  die  without  name  or  chil- 
dren ;  how  little  beauty  we  see,  and  how  few  friends  we 
hear  of ;  how  many  diseases,  and  how  much  poverty 
there  is  in  the  world ;  you  will  fall  down  upon  your 
knees,  and,  instead  of  repining  at  your  attlictions,  will 


182  LESSONS   IN"   ENGLISH. 

admire  so  raflny  blessings  which  you  have  received  at 
the  hand  of  God. 

9.  There  in  the  west  was  the  Great  Pyramid,  hiding  the 
sun  from  view,  and  utilizing  the  last  departing  rays  to 
cast  a  great  sharp  shadow  eastward  across  the  necropo- 
lis of  the  desert,  just  as  it  has  done  ever  since  the 
slaves  of  Cheops  placed  the  last  stone  upon  its  apex. 

10.  It  looks  rather  odd  to  see  civilized  people  sitting  in 
a  parlor,  surrounded  by  every  possible  luxury  wealth 
can  bring  except  fire,  wrapped  in  furs  and  rugs,  with 
blue  noses  and  chattering  teeth,  when  coal  is  cheap  and 
the  mountains  are  covered  with  timber. 

11.  He  philosophically  developed  the  rise  of  Puritanism 
and  the  causes  of  the  Pilgrim  emigration,  and  came 
down  to  the  Mayflower,  to  Miles  and  Rose  Standish,  to 
the  landing  at  Plymouth,  the  severity  of  the  winter,  the 
famine  and  the  sickness,  and  the  many  deaths  —  fifty 
out  of  a  hundred,  including  the  beautiful  Rose  Standish. 

12.  The  shores  are  still  fui'ther  diversified  by  bluffs  and 
rocky  points,  by  tongues  of  white  sand  shooting  out 
into  Long  Island  Sound,  by  pretty  ponds  and  odd  mills, 
and  by  orchards  and  meadows  coming  down  to  the 
water's  edge. 

13.  As  you  gaze  down  upon  these  simple  homes  from  the 
Acropolis  in  the  earliest  dawn  of  a  summer  morning, 
and  see  the  inmates,  roused  from  a  night's  rest,  light  a 
little  fire  in  the  open  air  and  prepare  their  frugal  meal — 
as  you  see  how  pathetically  these  little  houses  seem  to 
cling  like  suppliants  about  the  knees  of  the  marble- 
crowned,  world-famous  Rock  of  Athens,  it  takes  little 
fancy  to  imagine  that  these  homes  of  the  poor  have 
crept  for  protection  beneath  the  mighty  shadow  of  the 
stronghold  of  liberty  in  the  city's  glorious  past. 


SENTENCES.  183 

Second  Rhetorical  Classification. 

For  convenience,  a  more  general  classilication  of  sen- 
tences is  often  made,  all  sentences  being  regarded  as 
either  Short  or  Long. 

Effects  of  the  Two  Kinds  of  Sentences. 

Short  sentences  give  animation  to  the  style,  but  a 
constant  use  of  them  becomes  tiresome  and  destroys 
smoothness  of  expression. 

Long  sentences  give  a  fine  opportunity  for  climax, 
but  are  commonly  not  so  easily  understood  as  shorter 
ones.  They  require  closer  attention  on  the  part  of  tlie 
reader  or  hearer. 

Rule  as  to  Lencth  of  Sentences. 

Do  not  use  either  short  or  long  sentences  to  excess. 
Vary  the  construction,  to  prevent  monotony. 

EXEKOISE. 

1.  Novels,  as  a  class,  are  injurious  to  young  people. 
Thev  destroy  the  taste  for  more  solid  readino-.  Thev 
cultivate  the  emotions  to  au  undue  extent.  They  con- 
vey false  impressions  of  life. 

[Combine  into  one  sentence.] 

2.  I  was  once  an  enlisted  soldier,  under  the  three 
months'  call,  and  for  three  days  was  in  eauip  at  Hart- 
ford, sleeping  in  tents,  rising  at  the  tap  of  the  drum, 
going  through  the  routine  of  drill,  and  thrice  daily 
marching  to  tlie  Clinton  House  for  rations,  when  the 
word  came  from  Washington  that  no  more  three  months' 
men  were  wanted  in  front,  hut  three  5'ears,  or  for  the 
war,  it  having  at  last  penetrated  tlie  brains  of  the  men 


184  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

in  authority  tliat  the  contest  was  no  boy's  play  of  two 
or  three  months,  but  man's  work  for  an  indefinite  period. 

[Divide  into  six  sentences.] 

3.  A  dog  crossed  a  rivulet.  He  had  a  piece  of  meat  in 
his  mouth.  He  saw  his  own  shadow  represented  in  the 
clear  mirror  of  the  stream.  He  believed  it  to  be 
another  dog.  This  dog  was  also  carrying  a  piece  of 
meat.  The  real  dog  could  not  forbear  catching  at 
this  supposed  piece  of  meat.  He  did  not  get  anything 
by  his  greedy  design.  He  dropped  the  piece  of  meat 
which  he  had  in  his  mouth.  It  sank  to  the  bottom.  It 
was  irrecoverably  lost.  We  daily  see  men  venture  their 
property  in  wild  and  shadowy  speculations.  We  then 
see  exemplified  the  moral  of  this  fable.  The  moral  is, 
"  CoA-et  all,  lose  all."     [Re-write,  with  long  sentences.] 

4.  He  endeavored  to  calm  the  apprehensions  of  his 
mother,  and  to  assure  her  that  there  was  no  truth  in  all 
tlie  rumors  she  had  heard  :  she  looked  at  him  duliiously 
and  shook  her  head  :  but  finding  his  determination  was 
not  to  be  shaken,  she  brought  him  a  little  thick  Dutch 
Bil)le,  with  brass  clasps,  to  take  with  him  as  a  sword 
wherewith  to  fight  the  powers  of  darkness  ;  and,  lest 
that  might  not  be  sufficient,  the  housekeeper  gave  him 
the  Heidelberg  catechism,  by  way  of  dagger. 

[Divide  into  four  sentences.] 

5.  The  first  part  of  the  Rangoon's  voyage  was  accom- 
plished under  excellent  conditions.  The  weather  was 
moderate.  All  the  lower  portion  of  the  immense  Bay 
of  Bengal  was  favorable  to  the  steamer's  progress. 
The}'  kept  pretty  close  to  the  coast.  The  savage 
Papuans  of  the  island  did  not  show  themselves.  They 
are  beings  of  the  lowest  grade  of  humanity.  The  pan- 
oramic development  of  the  island  was  superb. 

[Combine  into  three  sentences.] 


SENTENCES.  185 

6.  I  recollect,  Avith  a  half-painful,  half-amusing  dis- 
tinctness all  the  little  incidents  of  the  dreadful  scene  ; 
how  I  found  myself  standing  in  an  upper  chamber  of  a 
gloomy  brick  house,  book  in  hand,  —  it  was  a  thin  vol- 
ume, with  a  tea-green  paper  cover  and  a  red  roan  back, 
—  before  an  awful  being,  who  put  questions  to  me  which, 
for  all  that  I  could  understand  of  them,  might  as  well 
have  been  couched  in  Coptic  or  in  Sanskrit ;  how,  when 
asked  about  governing,  I  answered,  "I  don't  know," 
and  when  about  agreeing,  "I  can't  tell,"  until  at  last, 
in  despair,  I  said  nothing,  and  choked  down  my  tears, 
wondering,  in  a  dazed,  dumb  fashion,  whether  all  this 
was  part  and  parcel  of  that  total  depravity  of  the  human 
heart  of  which  I  had  heard  so  much  ;  how  then  the 
being  —  to  whom  I  apply  no  epithet,  for,  poor  creature, 
he  thought  he  was  doing  God  service  —  said  to  me,  in  a 
terrible  voice,  "You  are  a  stupid,  idle  boy,  sir,  and 
have  neglected  your  task." 

[Re-write  with  short  sentences.] 

7.  Piedmont,  near  Torteval,  is  one  of  the  three  corners 
of  the  Island  of  Guernsey.  At  the  extremity  of  the 
cape  there  rises  a  high  turfy  hill,  which  looks  over  the 
sea.  The  height  is  a  lonely  place.  All  the  more  lonely 
from  there  being  one  solitary  house  there.  This  house 
adds  a  sense  of  terror  to  that  of  solitude.  It  is  popu- 
larly believed  to  be  haunted.  Haunted  or  not,  its  aspect 
is  singular.  Built  of  granite  and  rising  only  one  story 
high,  it  stands  in  the  midst  of  the  grassy  solitude. 

[Combine  into  four  sentences.] 

8.  One  [object],  which  was  almost  imperceptible  in  the 
wide  movement  of  the  waters,  was  a  sailing  boat.  In 
this  was  a  man.  It  was  the  sloop.  The  other,  black, 
motionless,  colossal,  rose  above  the  waves,  a  singular 
form.    Two  tall  pillars  issuing  from  the  sea  bore  aloft  a 


186  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

cross-beam  which  was  lil^e  a  bridge  between  them.  This 
bridge,  so  siugular  in  shape  that  it  was  impossible  to 
imagine  what  it  was  from  a  distance,  touclied  each  of 
the  two  pillars.  It  resembled  a  vast  portal.  Of  what 
use  could  such  an  erection  be  in  that  open  plain,  the 
sea,  which  stretched  around  it  far  and  wide  ?  Its  wild 
outline  stood  well-defined  against  the  clear  sky. 

The  two  perpendicular  forms  were  the  Douvres.  The 
huge  mass  held  fast  between  them,  like  an  architrave 
between  two  pillars,  was  the  wreck  of  tlie  Durande. 

[Re-write,  with  longer  sentences.] 

Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Sentences. 

Rhetorical  Qualities  of  a    Good    Sentence.  —  The 

most  important  qualities  of  a  good  sentence  are  Clear- 
ness, Emphasis,  Unity,  Strength,  and  Harmony. 

CLEARNESS. 

General  Rule.  —  The  arrangement  of  words  should 
be  such  that  the  meaning  cannot  be  misunderstood. 

Special  Rules. 

1.  Position  of  the  Adver-b.  —  Adverbs  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  which  they 
modify. 

Ex.     "  I  only  saw  two  birds." 

Here  the  adverb  only  seems  to  modify  saw ;  I  saw 
them,  but  did  not  hear  them  sing ;  or,  I  saw  them,  but 
did  not  shoot  tliem.  If  the  thought  is  that  there  were 
two  birds,  and  no  more,  the  adverb  is  in  the  wrong  place. 
The  sentence  should  read,  I  saw  only  two  birds. 


SENTENCES.  187 

2.  Position  of  Modifiers  in  General.  —  All  modi- 
fiers, whether  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  word  or  words  which 
they  limit. 

Ex.  "  He  went  to  town,  driving  a  flock  of  sheep,  on 
horseback." 

The  phrase  on  horseback  modifies  we^it ;  but  from  its 
position,  it  seems  to  refer  to  sheep.  The  proper  order 
would  be,  He  went  to  town,  on  horseback.,  driving  a 
flock  of  sheep. 

Participial  Construction.  —  In  the  use  of  participial 
phrases  and  clauses,  great  care  is  needed  to  preserve 
clearness  of  thought. 

Ex.  ^^  Being  exceedingly  fond  of  birds,  an  aviary  is  al- 
ways to  be  found  within  the  grounds." 

Here  the  participial  phrase  seems  to  refer  to  aviary  ; 
it  should,  of  course,  refer  to  some  person  previously 
named.  For  example,  "*S'«V  Robert  being  exceedingly 
fond  of  birds,"  etc. 

3.  Use  of  Pronouns. —  Every  pronoun  should  be  so 
placed  that  its  antecedent  cannot  be  mistaken. 

Ex.    "  The  figs  were  in  small  wooden  boxes.,  ivhich  we  ate." 

The  pronoun  which  seems  to  refer  to  boxes  as  its  ante- 
cedent.    It  should  refer  to  Jigs. 

"  The  Jigs  which  we  ate  were  in  small  wooden  boxes." 

Sometimes  two  persons  are  referred  to  in  the  same 
sentence,  and  the  pronouns  are  used  so  carelessly  that 
we  cannot  be  positive  as  to  their  antecedents.  Such 
pronouns  are  said  to  be  ambiguous. 


188  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

p]x.    "  James  told  John  that  his  horse  had  run  away." 

Wiose  horse  ?  In  order  to  make  the  meaning  clear, 
it  is  well  to  change  to  the  form  of  direct  discourse. 

James  said  to  John,  "  M}'  horse  has  run  away"  ;  or, 
James  said  to  John,  "  Your  horse  has  run  away." 

4.  "  Squinting-  Construction." — A  word,  a  phrase,  or 
a  clause  should  not  be  thrown  loosely  into  a  sentence, 
so  that  it  may  be  understood  as  referring  to  either  the 
preceding  or  the  following  part. 

Ex.  "  Please  tell  my  mother,  (/"  she  is  at  home,  I  shall  not 
hurry  back." 

The  clause  if  she  is  at  koine  may  modify  what  pre- 
cedes, the  idea  being,  If  she  is  at  home,  please  give  her 
my  message.  But  the  clause  may  also  be  connected  in 
meaning  with  the  last  part  of  the  sentence  —  I  shall  not 
hurry  back,  if  she  is  at  home.  If  she  is  away  from  home, 
my  services  may  be  needed,  and  I  must  hurry  back. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  sentences,  explaining  which  of  the  special 
rules  is  violated. 

1.  Here  is  a  fresh  basket  of  eggs. 

2.  The  dress  was  trimmed  with  white  glass  round  beads. 

3.  People  ceased  to  wonder  by  degrees. 

4.  Being  early  killed,  I  sent  a  party  in  search  of  his  man- 

gled body. 

5.  Did  you  take  that  book  to  the  library,  which  I  loaned 

you  ? 

6.  So  utterly  was  Carthage  destroyed  that  we  are  unable 

to  point  out  the  place  where  it  stood  at  the  present 
dav. 


SENTENCES.  189 

7.  The  mad  clog  bit  a  horse  ou  the  leg,  which  has  since 

died. 

8.  Wheu   a  mau   kills   another  from   malice,   it   is    called 

raurdei". 

9.  All  helped  themselves  to  what  the  keg  eoutaiued,  includ- 

ing Rip  Van  Winkle. 
lU.    Lost.     A   Lap  Robe   having   a   yellow  tiger  ou  a  red 
ground,  ou  the  way  from  Fair  Haven. 

11.  Then  the  Moor,  seizing  a  bolster,  filled  with  rage  and 

jealousy,  smothers  her. 

12.  He  died  of  a  slow  bilious  fever,  aged  47  years  and  6 

months. 
lo.    Wanted.     A  Drug  Clerk  immediately. 

14.  He    needs   no  spectacles,  that  cannot  see;    nor  boots, 

that  cannot  walk. 

15.  Twent3'-six  monks  were  buried  in  one  grave  which  had 

died  of  the  plague. 

16.  The  contents  of  the  keg  was  poured  into  flagous,  and 

Rip  was  made  to  wait  upon  them. 

17.  I  enjoyed  the  sail-  going  up  and  down    the  river  very 

much. 

18.  There  is  a  horse  ploughing  with  one  eye. 

19.  The  earth  looks  as  if  it  was  flat  on  the  map. 

20.  When  the  cat  came  into  the  room,  feeling  tired,  I  laid 

aside  my  work  and  began  to  talk  to  her. 

21.  After  showing  her  the  room  prepared  for  her  use,  she 

retired. 

22.  The  captain  was  only  saved  by  clinging  to  a  raft. 

23.  A  number  of  persons  were  poisoned  b}'  eating  ice  cream 

at  a  party  that  was  flavored  with  peach-leaves. 

24.  Lost.     A  cow  belonging  to  an  old  woman  wnth  brass 

knobs  on  her  horns. 

25.  The  horses  became  fatigued,  and  after  holding  a  council 

they  decided  to  go  no  farther. 


190  LESSONS    IX    ENGLISH. 

26.  The  rising  tomb  a  lofty  columu  bore. 

27.  I  saw  two  meu  digging  a  well  with  straw  hats. 

28.  Mrs. of  Troy  was  killed  "Weduesda}-  morning  while 

cooking  her  liusband's  breakfast  in  a  shocking  man- 
ner. 

29.  The  next  is  the  tomb  of  the  Abbot  Vitalis.  who  died 

in   1082,   and  was   formerl}'   covered   with  plates   of 
brass. 

30.  I  counted  twenty-five  meteors,  the  other  night,  sitting 

on  the  front  piazza. 

31.  There  is  on  exhibition  at  the  high  school  a  map  of  Italy 

drawn  by  a  pupil  seven  feet  long  and  foiu'  and  a  half 
feet  wide. 

32.  An  aged  woman  killed  a  snake  that  came  into  the  house 

with  a  fire-shovel,  after  all  the  rest  of  the  family  had 
fled. 

33.  If  fresh  milk  does  not  seem  to  agree  with  the  child, 

boil  it. 

34.  I  cannot  tell  you.  if  you  ask  me,  why  I  did  it. 

35.  This  monument  was   erected  to  the  memory  of  John 

Smith,  who  was  shot,  as  a  mark  of  affection  by  his 
l)rother. 
3(5.    Anybody  could  sec  that  mother  had  been  crying,  with 
half  an  eye. 

37.  The  fanner  went  to  his  neighbor  and  told  him  that  his 

cattle  were  in  his  fields. 

38.  The  visitor's  eye  will  be  struck,  on  entering  the  room, 

with  a  porcelain  umbrella. 

39.  The  Athenians  wrote  the  name  of  the  person  whom  they 

wished  to  banish  on  a  shell. 

40.  His  sou  Rip  had  grown  to  be  a  man,  and  he  inherited  all 

of  his  good  nature  and  laziness. 

41.  The   patent  sounding  board   and  equalizing  scale    are 

only  found  in  the  Mathushek  piano. 


SENTENCES.  191 

42.  "  No,"  said  the  bashful  l)oy,  '•  but  I  have  wished  that  I 

could  drop  through  the  floor  a  thousand  times." 

43.  And  thus  the  sou  the  fervent  sire  addressed. 

14.  There  Avere  many  elegant  presents,  including  a  solid  sil- 
ver set  and  a  patch-work  quilt  from  the  bride's  grand- 
mother, containing  4230  separate  pieces. 

45.  I  never  expect  to  be  a  good  writer. 

46.  I  don't  think  that  skedaddle  is  a  good  word. 

47.  Mr.  Osborn's  father  died  when  he  was  eight  years  old, 

and  from  that  time  he  was  confined  to  the  house  for 
seven  years  with  ill-health. 

48.  Five  dollars  reward  offered  for  the  discovery  of  any  per- 

son injuring  this  property  by  order  of  the  chief  of 
police. 

4'J.  Many  soldiers  have  died  since  the  war  ended  from  dis- 
eases the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  in  the  service. 

50.  The  swallows  come  l)ack  each  year  to  the  places 
which  have  previously  sheltered  them,  without  map  or 
compass. 

EMPHASIS. 

General  Rule.  —  The  words  of  a  sentence  should  be 
so  arranged  that  the  emphasis  in  reading  will  naturally 
come  upon  the  main  parts  of  the  sentence,  the  Principal 
Subject  and  the  Principal  Predicate. 

Special  Rules. 

1.  The  Principal  Subject.  —  The  principal  subject, 
it  must  be  remembered,  is  not,  in  all  cases,  the  grammat- 
ical subject  of  the  sentence.  Sometimes  it  is  in  the 
objective  case,  as  in  the  sentence,  '•'•  You  have  heard  the 
story  of  Paul  Reveres  ride.^'  Here  the  most  important 
thing  spoken  of  is  not  the  grammatical  subject  i/ou.    The 


192  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

emphasis  in  reading  will  naturally  come  upon  the  last 
three  words,  which  constitute  the  principal  subject. 
Notice  how  the  sentence  loses  its  force  if  we  say,  Of  the 
story  of  Paul  Revere  s  ride,  you  have  heard. 

The  place  of  the  principal  subject  is  commonly  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence,  but  stronger  emphasis  is 
often  secured  by  inversion. 

"•  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  I "  is  far  more  em- 
phatic than  Diana  of  the  Uphesians  is  great. 

Often,  too,  and  especially  in  sentences  which  contain 
participial  phrases  or  clauses,  it  is  well  to  dispose  of 
the  modifiers  first,  and  then  to  introduce  the  principal 
subject. 

Ex.  "Allowing  for  the  exaggeration  of  friendship  and 
poetry,  Tennyson's  tribnte  to  his  friend  is  just  and  well 
deserved." 

2.  The  Principal  Predicate.  —  The  same  suggestions 
will  apply  to  the  principal  predicate.  Let  the  modifiers 
be  so  arranged  that  the  Principal  Subject  and  the  Prin- 
cij)al  Predicate  shall  stand  out  clearly  in  the  sentence. 

Proper  emphasis  may  often  be  secured  by  changing 
the  verb  from  the  passive  form  to  the  active. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a)  Point  out  the  principal  subject  and  the  principal 
predicate  of  each  sentence. 

(b)  Reconstruct  the  sentence,  so  as  to  increase  the  em- 
phasis. 

1.  That  the  empire  has  provinces  which  blend  something  of 
foreign  genius  with  their  national  character,  on  her 
every  frontier,  is  of  the  greatness  of  France  one  im- 
portant element. 


SENTENCES.  193 

2.  She,  being  ambitious  to  perform  the  same  exploit,  darted 

from  her  nest  and  fixed  her  talons  in  a  large  sheep. 

3.  Surely  no  man  can  be  fully  compensated  for  the  loss  of 

education  by  great  wealth. 

4.  She   is  a  woman  who,   in    domestic   pursuits,   is  fully 

occupied. 

5.  The  English  language,  spoken  in  the  time  of  Elizalieth 

by  a  million  fewer  persons  than  to-day  speak  it  in 
London  alone,  now  girdles  the  earth  with  its  electric 
chain  of  communication,  and  voices  the  thoughts  of  u 
hundred  million  of  souls. 

6.  By  the  missionaries,  the  volcano  at  Teruate,  or  in  some 

part  of  the  Moluccas,  was  supposed  to  be  in  action. 

7.  Henry  Small,  a  mill  operative,   was   struck  at   Ri\^r- 

point,  R.  I.,  at  G.15  this  morning,  while  walking  on  the 
track  of  the  New  Yoi'k  and  New  England  railroad,  bj' 
an  extra  engine,  and  instantly  killed. 

8.  From  Charleston  Harbor,  having  gained  a  booty  of  be- 

tween seven  and  eight  thousand  dollars,  the  pirates 
sailed  away  to  the  coast  of  North  Carolina. 

9.  By  means  of  a  simple  affair  called  the  hektograph,  we 

can  make  some  fifty  copies  of  a  written  paper. 

10.  Some   people  think  that  it  is  "the  Eastern  question" 

which  is  the  really  serious  problem  of  to-day. 

11.  When   this  man's  talents  were  recognized,  it  was  too 

late  ;  for  he  and  his  wife  had  died  in  obscure  poverty. 

12.  To  imprison  all  of  the  crew  seems  unjust,  although  care 

should  be  taken  that  the  murderer  does  not  escape. 

13.  A  man,  having  incautiously  stepped  into  an  air-hole,  was 

drowned  yesterday  at  Lake  AVhitney,  while  cutting 
ice. 

14.  While  the  storm  was  raging,  a  tree  was  struck  by  a  flash 

of  lightning,  which  was  the  only  flash  seen  during  the 
storm,  and  which  looked  like  a  ball  of  fire. 


194  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

1.").  A  lirazen  statue  of  Justice  stood  in  the  public  square, 
once  in  an  ancient  cit}',  whose  name  I  no  longer 
remember,  raised  aloft  on  a  column,  upholding  the 
scales  in  its  left  baud,  and  in  its  right  a  sword. 

UNITY. 

General  Rule.  —  The  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be 
so  arranged  that  unity  of  thought  shall  be  maintained. 

Special  Rules. 

1.  Change  of  Subject.  —  The  subject  should  be 
clianged  as  little  as  is  unavoidable.  This  rule  does  not, 
of  course,  mean  that  a  sentence  must  never  contain 
more  than  one  subject. 

Ex.  "  The  vessel  made  for  the  shore,  and  the  passengers 
soon  crowded  into  the  boats,  and  the  beach  was  reached  in 
safety,  where  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  received  them 
with  the  utmost  kindness." 

This  sentence  contains  four  subjects,  —  vessel^  jmssen- 
gers^  beach,  and  inhabitants.  It  is  evident  that  the  prin- 
cipal subject  is  the  passengers.  The  sentence  should 
read,  The  vessel  having  made  for  the  shore,  the  passen- 
gers soon  crowded  into  the  boats  and  safely  reached  the 
beach,  where  they  were  received  with  the  utmost  kind- 
ness by  the  inhabitants  of  the  island. 

2.  Relative  Clauses.  —  Unity  of  thorght  is  often 
destroyed  by  a  loose  arrangement  of  relative  clauses. 
A  sentence  may  properly  contain  two  or  more  relative 
clauses  having  a  common  dependence  upon  the  principal 
clause ;  as,  for  example,  — 


SENTENCES.  195 

•'  This  is  the  most  charming  chapter  in  tlie  story,  whieli  is 
full  of  pleasant  incidents  and  which  the  reader  will  find  well 
worth  perusal." 

Here  both  relative  pronouns  refer  to  story.  But  in 
the  sentence,  "  We  had  no  lack  of  entertainment  during 
the  time  which  we  spent  in  the  city,  which  seems  very 
gay  and  attractive,"  the  relative  clauses  are  wrongly 
used.  The  second  which  refers  to  citti  in  the  preceding 
relative  clause.     The  first  which  refers  to  time. 

"And  which."  The  following  sentence  illustrates  a 
common  error  in  construction  :  — 

"His  is  a  style  abounding  in  strength  and  vivacity  a)id 
which  never  transgresses  the  bounds  of  literary  propriety." 

It  must  be  remembered  that  and  is  a  co-ordinate  con- 
junction, and  that  it  should,  therefore,  join  words  or 
phrases  or  clauses  which  are  of  the  same  kind.  In  this 
sentence,  and  joins  a  participial  phrase  to  a  relative 
clause.  Both  modifiers  may  be  made  participial  or  both 
relative,  as  follows  :  — 

(a)  His  is  a  style  abounding  in  strength  and  vivacity  and 
never  transgressing  the  bounds  of  literary  propriety. 

(&)  His  is  a  style  which  abounds  in  strength  and  vivacity 
and  which  never  transgresses  the  bounds  of  literary  propriety. 

3.  Too  Many  Ideas.  —  Ideas  which  have  no  close 
connection  should  not  be  crowded  into  the  same  sen- 
tence. Long  and  rambling  sentences  are  very  likely  to 
contain  other  faults  besides  lack  of  unity. 

Ex.  "As  we  drove  along,  we  met  a  young  lady  in  full 
lawn-tennis  costume,  and  passed  a  house  where  there  was  a 
handsome  flower-garden  and  where  Mr.  Gray  lives, 'who  is 


196  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

tlie  teller  of  the  bank  and  who  owns  a  superb  St.  Bernard 
dog." 

4.  Parentheses.  —  Avoid  the  use  of  parentheses.  A 
liarenthesis  is  commonly  a  sign  of  careless  construction. 

Ex.  "  One  day  last  week  (Wednesday,  I  think)  we  went 
nutting." 

In  the  following  sentence,  the  parenthesis  is  allowable, 
but  a  division  into  two  sentences  would  be  a  better 
arrangement :  — 

"Then  said  the  Shepherds,  '  P>om  that  stile  there  goes  a 
path  that  leads  directly  to  Doubting-Castle,  which  is  kept  l)y 
Giant  Despair  ;  and  these  men  (pointing  to  them  among  tlie 
tombs)  came  once  on  pilgrimage,  as  you  do  now,  even  until 
they  came  to  that  same  stile.'  " 

5.  Supplementary  Clauses.  —  When  the  expression 
of  a  thought  is  apparently  complete,  no  additional 
clatise  should  be  "  tacked  on  "  at  the  end. 

Ex.  "There  is  to  be  a  grand  wedding  next  week,  to 
which  we  are  all  to  be  invited  ;  or,  at  least,  so  I  hear." 

EXEKOISE. 

(a)  Which  of  the  special  rules  is  violated? 

(h)  Correct  the  sentence  so  as  to  maintain  unity  of  thought. 

1.  There  are  eighteen  hundred  figures  on  the  front  of 
the  cathedral,  and  its  two  steeples  are  unequal  in  height. 

2.  Many  a  man  (and  good  ones,  too)  goes  the  downward 
way,  for  want  of  a  helping  hand. 

3.  After  we  came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where 
I  was  welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  who  received  me 
wifli  the  greatest  kindness. 


r  - 


SENTENCES.  197 

4.  I  saw  a  chair  which  ouce  belonged  to  James  K.  Polk 
—  cue  of  the  presidents,  you  know. 

5.  His  companion  was  a  short,  stout  man,  with  a  gray 
beard  and  bushy  hair,  and  as  they  approached  the  top. 
Rip  heard  noises  like  peals  of  thunder. 

G.        Washington  died  of  the  sore  throat,  and  was  six  feet 

three  inches  tall. 
7.        They   told  stories    and    read    newspapers    that    were 

months  old,  that  were  left  by  some  traveler  on  his  w^ay 

to  the  Catskills,  which  were  then  and  are  now  noted  for 

their  scenery. 
■S.        Can  you  not  see  that  one  can  do  whatever  he  sets  his 

heart  upon  doing  —  if  it  is  possible  ? 
9.        There  are  people  (and  their  name  is  legion)  wdio  have 

no  aim  in  life  but  to  have  a  good  time. 

10.  A  violent  storm  drove  me  to  the  coast  of  Sardinia, 
which  is  free  from  all  poisonous  herbs  except  one, 
which  resembles  parsley  and  causes  those  who  eat  it  to 
die  of  laughing. 

11.  Dr.  Kane  described  the  Arctic  silence  as  sometimes 
almost  dreadful ;  and  one  da}'  at  dinner,  while  Thack- 
eray was  quietly  smoking  and  Kane  was  fresh  from  his 
travels,  he  told  them  a  story  of  a  sailor  reading  Pen- 
dennis. 

12.  People  have  the  most  disagreeable  habit  (when  I 
wear  this  hat)  of  staring  at  me. 

13.  They  fly  swiftly  and  mostly  In*  day,  and  their  food 
consists  of  seeds  and  berries  and  small  shell-fish. 

14.  I  went  to  town  last  week —  about  the  onl}'  thing!  did. 

15.  The  most  important  rules,  definitions,  and  observa- 
tions, and  which  are  therefore  the  most  proper  to  be 
committed  to  memory,  are  printed  in  large  type. 


198  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

10.  I  could  uot  go,  but  the  girls  went,  aud  when  the  party 
was  over,  it  was  mooulight,  and  so  the  ride  home  was 
ver}^  delightful. 

17.  You  will  probably  be  at  home  by  New  Year's,  I 
haven't  a  doubt. 

18.  He  found  the  roof  fallen  in,  and  there  was  a  skinu}' 
dog  running  about  that  looked  like  Wolf,  and  he  called 
him  by  name,  but  the  dog  turned  around  and  showed  his 
teeth. 

19.  His  death  was  due  to  nervous  prostration,  and  he  had 
reached  the  age  of  forty-seven  years. 

20.  "We  stopped  at  Dijon,  and  though  the  town  has  been 
ransacked  many  times,  it  still  shows  its  antiquity. 

21.  AVhile  Mary  remained  with  us,  our  family  expenses 
doubled,  our  food  disappeared  in  the  most  marvelous 
manner,  the  dishes  that  she  broke  were  numerous,  and  I 
finally  lost  patience. 

22.  We  met  a  man  who  was  riding  horseback  on  the  road 
which  leads  through  the  woods. 

23.  The  very  day  that  John  left  us  and  I  finished  reading 
"  Dombey  and  Son,"  a  storm  came  on,  which  wet  the 
hay  that  Father  had  been  so  careful  about. 

24.  We  may  be  sure  of  the  unconsciousness  with  which 
the  following  passage  was  written,  in  a  letter  from  a 
lady  to  a  friend  from  whom  she  had  been  alienated,  and 
who  sent  her  a  present  which  she  felt  some  delicacy  in 
accepting. 

25.  Their  eldest  son  studied  for  the  ministry,  but  he  has 
never  preached,  that  I  know  of. 

20.  The  horses  stood  still,  but  we  got  out,  and  the  snow 
was  coming  down  very  fast,  so  tlie  path  was  diMicult  to 
find,  but  home  was  at  last  reached. 


si:ntences.  199 

27.  Barnes  continued  (so  wicked  a  wretch  was  he)  to 
poison  their  minds  against  the  innocent  hid. 

"28.  The  first  appearance  of  the  hermitess  in  "Westcliester 
County,  New  York  State  —  for  her  cave  was  in  this 
county  —  was  at  the  liouse  of  my  mother's  grandfather, 
who  was  a  deacon  in  tlie  Presbyterian  church. 

29.  The  basement  and  nearly  all  of  the  first  floor  are  com- 
pleted, as  far  as  the  exterior  goes. 

30.  But  they  were  quite  as  pleased  with  one  another  (and 
perhaps  even  more  so)  as  though  they  had  each  uttered 
the  most  remarkable  witticisms. 

:M.  For  generations  to  come  the  old  house  will  open  its 
hospitable  doors,  unless  somebod}'  comes  along  and 
tears  it  down. 

.'52.  The  doctor  was  called,  and  the  sick  man  rallied,  but 
as  night  came  on,  the  storm  increased,  and  no  word  came 
from  the  fort. 

3;5.  The  place  was  approached  through  a  pasture-field,  — 
we  had  found  it  by  mere  accident, — and  where  the 
peninsula  joined  the  field  (we  had  to  climb  a  fence  just 
there) ,  there  was  a  cluster  of  chestnut  and  hickory  trees. 

STRENGTH. 

General  Rule.  —  A  sentence  should  be  so  con- 
structed that  the  thought  which  it  contains  shall  be  ex- 
pressed with  all  possible  force.  Energy  and  Animation 
are  other  names  for  this  quality. 

Special  Rules. 

1.  Unnecessary  Words.  —  Cutout  all  words  which 
do  not  add  anything  to  the  meaning. 


200  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

The  error  of  using  too  many  words  has  three  mani- 
festations : — 

Tautology,  Redundancy,  and  Circumlocution. 

(a)    Tautolog}'  consists  in  repeating  the  thought. 
Ex.    "  Silence  veigued,  and  not  a  sound  was  heard." 

(i)  Redundancy  consists  in  using  words  which  are 
not  necessary  to  the  sense. 

Ex.    "  Collect  together  all  the  fragments." 

(c)  Circumlocution  consists  in  using  "  round-about " 
expressions. 

Ex.  "  One  of  those  omnipresent  characters,  who,  as  if  in 
pursuance  of  some  previous  arrangement,  are  certain  to  l)e 
encountered  in  the  vicinity  when  an  accident  occurs,  ven- 
tured the  suggestion." 

This  is  a  round-about  way  of  saying,  "A  bystander 
advised." 

2.  Words  of  Connection.  —  The  strength  of  a  sen- 
tence is  increased  by  careful  use  of  the  words  of  con- 
nection. 

(a)  Avoid  "  stringing  "  clauses  together  loosely  with 
and  as  a  connective. 

Ex.  "They  were  soon  at  liome  and  surrounded  hy  the 
family  and  plied  with  questions  as  to  wliat  they  had  seen  and 
what  tliev  had  heard  and  soon  the  neighbors  came  in  and 
then  the  whole  story  had  to  be  told  again." 

In  this  sentence,  there  is  lack  of  unity  as  well  as  lack 
of  strength. 

In  a  sentence  containing  a  series  of  words  or  expres- 
sions in  the  same  construction,  insert  conjunctions  be- 


SENTENCES.  201 

tween  each  two  words  or  expressions  if  the  intention  is 
to  make  the  mind  dwell  upon  each  particular. 

Ex.  "  And  the  rain  descended,  and  the  tloods  came,  and 
the  winds  blew,  and  beat  upon  that  house  ;  and  it  fell :  and 
great  was  the  fall  of  it." 

But  when  the  author's  object  is  to  give  a  many-sided 
view  of  a  subject,  or  to  convey  the  idea  of  rapid  move- 
ment, the  conjunction  should  be  omitted. 

Ex.  "  Charit}'  beareth  all  things,  believeth  all  things, 
hopeth  all  things,  eudureth  all  things." 

"  One  effort,  one,  to  break  the  circling  liost ; 
They  form,  unite,  charge,  waver,  —  all  is  lost !  " 

(i)  Do  not  weaken  the  sentence  by  the  omission  of 
the  relative  pronoun.  Such  omissions  are  allowable  in 
familiar  conversation,  but  rarely  in  careful  writing. 

Plx.  "  The  idea  [which]  he  is  working  on  is  fraught  with 
great  possibilities." 

((')  Do  not  have  two  prepositions  govern  the  same 
noun.  This  awkward  construction  is  called  "  splitting 
particles." 

Ex.    "  He  ran  hy,  but  did  not  look  into,  the  windows." 
Better  :  He  ran  by  the  windows,  but  did  not  look  into  them. 

3.  Contrasts. —  Contrasted  members  of  a  sentence 
should  be  similar  in  construction. 

Ex.  "The  President  holds  the  Executive  power  of  the 
laud,  but  the  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  Congress." 

The  contrast  is  more  forcible  if  we  say,  The  Presi- 
dent holds  the  Executive  power  of  the  land ;  but  Con- 
gress, the  Legislative  power. 


202  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

4.  Conclusion.  —  The  mind  naturally  dwells  upon 
the  last  part  of  a  sentence.  Care  should,  therefore,  be 
taken  to  have  the  last  word  a  forcible  one.  Avoid  clos- 
ing a  sentence  with  an  insignificant  word  or  phrase  ; 
as,  for  example,  an  adverb  or  a  preposition  or  such  a 
phrase  as  to  it,  hy  it,  etc. 

Ex.    "  That  is  a  danger  whicli  young  children  are  exposed 

to: 

The  sentence  should  read.  That  is  a  danger  to  which 
young  children  are  exposed. 

Ex.    "  None  but  capital  letters  were  used  formerly:' 

The  idea  is  more  forcibly  presented  if  we  say,  For- 
merly, none  but  capital  letters  were  used. 

Exceptions.  —  The  adverb  and  the  preposition  may 
come  at  the  close  of  the  sentence  when  they  are  ver}^ 
closely  related  to  the  verb  ;  as,  for  example,  in  the  ex- 
})ressions,  to  laio/h  at,  to  lay  hold  of,  to  clear  up,  to  urge  on. 

An  adverb  may  properly  close  a  sentence  in  an  antith- 
esis, where  the  adverbs  are  the  contrasted  words. 

Ex.  "In  their  prosperity,  niy  friends  shall  7ieye/' hear  of 
me  ;  in  tlieir  adversit\',  alioays:' 

It  should  be  noted,  also,  that  if  we  liave  to  choose 
between  a  weak  ending  and  a  stiff,  unnatural  arrange- 
ment, the  former  is  the  less  serious  fault. 

"  It  would  have  been  well  for  him  if  he  had  thought 
of  it"  is  better  English  than,  It  would  have  been  well 
for  him  if  he  of  it  had  thought. 

5.  Climax.  —  Whenever  it  is  possible,  arrange  words 
and  clauses  so  as  to  make  an  effective  climax.     The  last 


SENTENCES.  203 

clause  of  a  sentence  and  the  last  paragraph  of  an  essay 
should  ordinarily  be  the  strongest  one. 

Example  of  faully  climax:  "Where  shall  1  lind  hope, 
happiuess,  a  clear  conscience,  friends,  money?  " 

Corrected:  "Where  shall  I  find  money,  friends,  hope, 
happiness,  and  a  clear  conscience?" 

EXERCISE. 

(a)  AVhich  of  the  special  rules  is  violated? 

(b)  Change  the  sentence  so  as  to  increase  its  strength. 

1.  He  seems  to  enjoy  the  universal  esteem  of  all  men. 

2.  Summer  is  warm  but  extremely  pleasant ;  while  winter 

brings  gloomy  days  and  cold. 

3.  My  goat,  my  children,  my  dog,  I  shall  never,  never  see 


again. 


4.  Will  you  please  raise  up  this  window? 

5.  Opening  the  portfolio,  she  found  it  contained  several 

poor  little  sketches. 

6.  The}'  always  entered  school  together  every  morning. 

7.  From  appearances,  she  seemed  to  be  a  stranger. 

8.  The  birds  were  singing  their  lays  of  thanks  and  grati- 

tude. 

9.  The  glen  is  an  extremely  beautiful  and  delightful  spot. 

10.  Insects,  men,  beasts,  are  all  creatures  of  God's  hand. 

11.  Some  sow  good  seed,  and  others  deposit  in  the  ground 

that  which  can  jield  no  harvest. 

12.  The   freshet  destroyed  life  and    property  and    washed 

away  thousands  of  hencoops. 

13.  Maud  is  extravagantly  fond  of  those  exquisitely  beauti- 

ful water  lilies  which  are  so  extremel}'  abundant  on 
the  lake. 

14.  It  is  a  great  privilege  to  assemble  and  meet  together. 


204  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

15.    On  account  of  the  small  number  of  seats  available,  nu 

ladies  will  be  admitted,  only  the  men. 
IG.    Do  not  judge  a  book  by  its  cover;    neither  should  wo 

choose  a  man  for  a  friend  because  he  is  handsome. 

17.  They  are  descended  from,  but  are  not  closely  related  to, 

the  present  generation  of  the  Taylors  of  Portchestcr. 

18.  I  am  extremely  glad  to  see  you,  and  exceedingly  sorry 

that  I  have  kept  you  waiting  so  terribly  long. 

19.  Phidias,  the  most  renowned  sculptor  the  world  has  ever 

seen,  has  never  had  an  equal,  before  or  since. 

20.  The  youngest  soon  reappeared  again  with  some  of  his 

father's  cast-off  clothing  on. 

21.  The  least  that  is  said  on  the  subject,  the  soonest  it  will 

be  mended. 

22.  The  glor}-  of  man,  his  power,  his  greatness,  depend  on 

essential  qualities. 

23.  From  whence  did  he  come? 

24.  He  took  it  from,  and  would  not  return  it  to,  the  child. 

25.  The  monument  towers  to  a  lofty  height  towards  the  sky. 

26.  Do  you  see  that  monstrous  large  bird  which  this  very 

minute  flew  out  of  the  identical  tree  under  which  you 
are  sitting? 

27.  He  saw  before  him  ruin,  defeat,  disaster,  and  broken 

health. 

28.  The  gentle  old  lady  was  deceived  by  false  misrepre- 

sentations. 

29.  Philadelphia  is  the  largest  in  extent,  but  New  York  con- 

tains a  fjreater  number  of  inhal)itants. 

30.  He  walked  to  the  table  and  took  up  his  hat  and  bade 

adieu  to  his  host  and  took  his  departure. 

31.  The  Emperor  was  so  intent  on  the  establishment  of  his 

absolute  power  in  Hungary  that  he  exposed  the  empire 
doubly  to  desolation  and  ruin  for  the  sake  of  it. 

32.  She  is  a  novice ;  that  is  to  say,  a  green  hand  at  making 

bread. 


SENTENCES.  205 

33.  The  pain  was  almost  intolerable  to  be  borne. 

34.  Sit  down  and  take  a  seat. 

35.  She  regrets  that  the  multiplicit}'  of  her  engagements  pre- 

clndes  her  accepting  your  polite  invitation. 

HARMONY. 

General  Rule. — A  sentence  should  be  constructed 
with  due  regard  to  a  pleasing  effect  upon  the  ear. 

It  must  be  evident,  that  while  Harmony  is  a  very 
desirable  quality  of  sentences,  it  is  less  important  than 
Clearness,  Unity,  or  Strength.  In  applying  the  special 
rules,  therefore,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  sacrifice 
the  sense  to  the  sound. 

Special  Rules. 

1.  Pleasant  Sounds.  —  Pleasantness  of  sound,  or 
Euphony,  as  it  is  called,  is  best  secured  by  avoiding  the 
use  of  words,  or  combinations  of  words,  which  are  diffi- 
cult to  pronounce.  The  most  melodious  words  are  such 
as  contain  a  blending  of  vowels  and  consonants,  espe- 
cially if  some  of  the  consonants  are  liquids.  Compare 
the  following,  as  to  Euphony :  — 

"  He  arbitrarily  singled  out  an  inexplicably  scrubby  shrub 
and  peremptorily  reprimanded  the  giggling,  but  shame-faced, 
Driggs  for  having  haggled  all  the  shrubbery  instead  of  prop- 
erly priming  it." 

"  I  love  the  old  melodious  lays 

Which  softly  melt  the  ages  through, 
The  songs  of  Spenser's  golden  days, 
Arcadian  Sidney's  silvery  phrase, 

Sprinkling  our  noon  of  time  with  freshest  morning 
dew."  Whittier. 


206  LESSONS  IN   ENGLISH. 

Examples  of  disagreeable  combinations  of  sounds  :  — 

He  will  wilfully  persist ;  I  can  candidly  say  ;  in  an  analo- 
gous case. 

2.  Needless  Repetition.  —  Avoid  repeating  tlie  same 
word  in  a  sentence  or  a  paragraph.  Aim  to  secure 
variety  of  expression. 

Ex.  "  The  general  ordered  the  captain  to  order  the  sol- 
diers to  observe  good  order.''' 

Better :  The  general  directed  the  captain  to  see  that  the 
soldiers  observed  good  order. 

3.  Rhythm.  —  The  words  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  accents  shall  come  at  intervals  convenient  for  the 
reader  or  speaker.  The  harmonious  flow  of  sounds 
made  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  tone  is  called  Rhythm.  No 
definite  rules  for  the  arrangement  of  accents  can  be 
given.  The  ear  must  be  trained  to  recognize  any  inter- 
ruption to  the  smoothness  of  sound. 

Take  the  following  sentence  from  Irving :  — 

"It  is  delightful,  in  thus  bivouacking  on  the  prairies,  to 
lie  awake  and  gaze  at  the  stars  ;  it  is  like  watching  them 
from  the  deck  of  a  ship  at  sea,  when  at  one  view  we  have 
the  whole  cope  of  heaven." 

It  is  evident  that  there  is  something  wrong  in  the 
sentence.  "It  doesn't  sound  right,"  would  be  a  very 
natural  criticism.  If  we  examine  the  sentence,  we  shall 
find  that  between  the  words  "watching"  and  "heaven" 
are  nineteen  successive  monosyllables. 

Such  a  sentence  may  be  greatly  improved  by  insert- 
ing one  or  two  longer  words  in  place  of  the  short  ones. 
A  succession  of  words  of  one  syllable  is  very  likely  to 
destroy  the  rhythm  of  a  sentence. 


SENTENCES.  207 

4.  Cadence  at  the  Close.  —  Words  should  be  so 
arranged  as  to  give  an  agreeable  cadence  at  the  close  of 
a  sentence.  By  cadence  is  meant  the  falling  of  the 
voice.  Avoid  closing  a  sentence  with  a  small  word  or 
with  a  succession  of  unaccented  syllables. 

Such  a  construction  is  lacking  in  strength  as  w^ell  as 
in  harmony.  Words  of  three  syllables,  accented  on  the 
second,  and  words  of  four  syllables,  accented  on  the  first 
and  third,  make  pleasant  cadences. 

Ex.    de-light'-ful ;  iu-ter-ces'-sion. 

Example  of  faulty  cadence :  — 

"  In  the  farming  districts,  where  the  people  are  fully  as 
well  educated  as  those  of  any  rural  district  iu  the  United 
States,  the  servants  form  part  of  the  family  circle  at  the 
table,  around  the  hearth-stone,  or  in  the  pew  at  church  ;  they 
share  the  best  sleeping  apartments  of  the  family,  wear  just 
as  good  clothing  as  the  master  and  mistress,  and  the  maids, 
if  they  are  pretty,  get  as  much  attention  from  masculine 
visitors  as  the  daughters  of  the  house,  too." 

5.  Adapting  the  Sound  to  the  Sense.  —  Whenever 
it  is  possible,  and  particularly  in  description  and  narra- 
tion, the  sound  should  be  adapted  to  the  sense.  The 
use  of  the  figure  onomatopoeia,  which  has  already  been 
explained,  gives  vividness  and  animation  to  the  style. 

A  fine  example  of  this  kind  of  harmony  is  given  by 
Longfellow  in  "  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  " :  — 

"  Silently  out  of  the  room  then  glided  the  glistening'  savage, 
Bearing  the  serpent's  skin,   and  seeming   himself  like  a 

serpent, 
Winding  his  sinuous  way  in  the  dark  to  the  depths  of  the 
forest." 


208  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Compare  these  two  descriptions  from  Milton's  "  Para- 
dise Lost,"  one  referring  to  the  opening  of  the  gates  of 
Heaven  ;  the  other,  of  the  gates  of  Hell :  — 

"  Heaven  opened  \\ide  ''  On  a  sudden,  open  fly 

Her  ever-during  gates,  liarnio-         With    impetuous    recoil    and 

nious  sound,  jarring  sound, 

On  golden  hinges  turning."  The  infernal   doors ;    and  on 

x  their  hinges  grate 

Harsh  thunder." 

Poe's  poem,  "  The  Bells,' '  Southey's  "  Cataract  of 
Lodore,"'  Tennyson's  "Bugle  Song"  and  "Brook,"  are 
more  extended  illustrations. 

EXERCISE. 

(a)  Explain  the  lack  of  harmony. 
(&)  Correct  the  sentence. 

1 .  The  gas  up  blazes  with  its  bright  white  light. 

2.  In  India,  innocent  infants  are  thrown  into  the  Ganges. 

3.  To  two  tunes,  I  have  made  up  my  mind  never  to  listen. 

4.  One    cannot   imagine    what   a   monotonous    being   one 

becomes   if   one    constantly    remains    turning   one's 
self  in  the  circle  of  one's  favorite  notions. 

5.  The  public  library'  will  be  of  special  value,  especially  to 

vounsj  men. 

6.  Which  witch  was  first  burned? 

7.  I  can  can  fruit  better  than  Mother  can. 

8.  She  said,  loud  enough  for  those  near  to  hear,  "  What  a 

fright ! " 

9.  Looking  up,  the  cobbler  saw  approaching  a  stranger  of 

very    strange    appearance.     "  Good   morning,"   said 
the  stranger. 

10.  Starting  again,  he  heard  his  name  called  again. 

11.  'Twas  thou  that  soothedst  the  rough  rugged  bed  of  pain. 


SENTENCES.  209 

\-2.    Some    chroniclers,  by    an    injudicious   use   of   familiar 
phrases,  express  themselves  sillily. 

13.  The  rules  of  emphasis  come  in  in  interruption  of  your 

supposed  general  law  of  position. 

14.  A  mild  child  is  liked  better  than  a  wild  child. 

1.^).    Jf  the  major  had  wished  to  communicate  anything  of 
importance,  why  did  he  not  come  here  and  say  it? 

16.  Base  natures  joy  to  see  hard  hap  happen  to  them  they 

deem  happy. 

17.  Even  is  come,  and  from  the  dark  park,  hark ! 
The  signal  of  the  setting  sun,  one  gun  ; 

And  six  is  setting  from  the  chime,  prime  time 

To  go  and  see  the  Drury  Lane  Dane  slain.  Thomoff  Hood. 

15.  He  had  been  gone  from  the  village  twenty  years,  and 

what  was  one  night  to  him  on  the  mountains  was  in 
reality  twenty  years. 
Ul.    The  trees  over  our  heads  formed  a  leafy  curtain,  as  it 
were. 

20.  There  was  now  but  a  little  of  the  opening  remaining 

above  water.  It  was  like  the  arch  of  a  bridge,  under 
which  rushed  the  foaming  water.  Leaning  forward 
the  engineer  saw  a  black  object  floating  on  the  water. 

21.  The  reason  is  that  one  is  constantly  enjoying  himself  all 

the  time  by  the  countless  beauties  which  he  sees,  so 
that  when  he  returns  home,  it  seems  as  though  he  had 
not  seen  half  the  scenes  which  there  are  to  be  seen. 

22.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  Rome  in  her  palmiest  days  never 

had  such  a  combat  as  that. 

23.  ''  Well,"  he  exclaimed,  "  this  is  truly  rural !  " 

24.  He  used  to  use  many  expressions  not  usually  used. 

20.    She  said  that  that  that  that  that  sentence  contains  is  an 
adjective. 


210 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


SYNOPSIS   OF   THE   SUBJECT  "SENTENCES." 


Kinds  of  Sentences. 


Grammatical. 


Rhetorical. 


r  1.  Simple. 
-j  2.  Complex. 
(  3.  Compound. 

'  L  Periodic. 

2.  Loose. 
:}.  Balanced. 

Short  and  Long. 


I.  Clearness. 


11.   Emphasis.    ) 


in.   Unity. 


IV.   Strength. 


Construction. 

1.  Adverbs. 

2.  Modifiers  in  General. 

3.  Pronouns. 

^  4.  Squinting  Construction. 

1.  Principal  Subject. 
Principal  Predicate. 

1.  Change  of  Subject. 

2.  Relative  Clauses. 
■{   3.  Too  Many  Ideas. 

4.  Parentheses. 

^  5.  Supplementary  Clauses. 

r  Tautology. 
"  L  Unnecessary  Words.  -|  Redundancy. 

(  Circumlocution. 

2.  Words  of  Connection. 

3.  Contrasts. 

4.  Conclusion. 
.5.  Climax. 


^ 


V.   Harmony.    ^ 


''  L  Pleasant  Sounds. 

2.  Repetition. 

3.  Rhythm. 

4.  Cadence  at  Close. 

5.  Adapting  Sound  (o  Sense. 


^*jji 


SENTENCES.  211 

MISCELLANEOUS  SENTENCES. 

1.  The  Hindoos,  when  they  see  the  black  disk  of  our  satel- 

lite advancing  over  the  sun,  believe  that  the  jaws  of 
a  dragon  are  gradually  eating  it  up. 

2.  All  the   crew  were  rescued,   altliough  all  were  almost 

frozen. 

3.  Mr.  French  killed  a  burglar  just  as  he  was  entering  liis 

door. 

4.  He  that  hath  passed  many  stages  of  a  good  life,  to  pre- 

vent his  being  tempted  to  a  single  sin,  must  be  very 
careful  that  he  never  entertain  his  spirit  with  the 
remembrances  of  his  past  sins. 

5.  In  the  middle  of  the  Campus  is  an  inclosed  space  where 

the  body  of  Augustus  was  burnt,  also  constructed  of 
white  stone,  surrounded  with  an  iron  rail,  and  planted 
in  the  interior  with  poplar  trees. 

6.  There  is  a  story  of  a  father  whom  his  son  resolved  to 

rob.  Having  left  unguarded  the  key  of  his  escritoire, 
as  if  through  forgetfulness,  the  thief  rushed  towards 
the  gold. 

7.  If  we  all  combine  our  forces  together,  we  shall  be  strong 

enough  to  resist. 

8.  The  reception  which  the  actor  received  when  he  stepped 

upon  the  stage  was  enthusiastic  and  prolonged  to  an 
almost  unprecedented  degree. 

9.  Fruit-owners  became  exasperated  over  such  petty  thefts, 

and  it  was  only  a  day  or  two  ago  that  a  man  who  has 
a  fine  grape-arbor  and  several  fruit-trees  called  and 
asked  the  judge  if  he  could  not  shoot  boys  that  tres- 
passed on  his  place  with  pepper  and  salt. 
10.  Butter  for  sale.  We  have  received  a  shipment  this 
morning  of  .500  tubs.  The  quality  is  fine  and  put  up 
in  new  firkins. 


212  LESSONS    TN   ENGLISH. 

11.  The  famous  poisoned  valley  of  Java  (Mr.  Loudon,  a 

recent  traveller  iu  that  region,  tells  us  that  it  is  tilled 
with  skeletons  of  men  and  birds)  has  proved  to  he 
the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano. 

12.  Another  girl,  eight  years  of   age,  secreted    and  saved 

herself  under  the  flooring  of  the  house,  whose  hus- 
band, iu  later  years,  was  one  of  the  trustees  of  Whit- 
man College. 

13.  The  houses  are  built  of  small  yellow  bricks  which  were 

brought  from  Holland,  with  latticed  windows  and 
gable  fronts  surmounted  with  weather-cocks. 

14.  The  settler  here  the  savage  slew. 

1.5.  During  Tuesday's  thunder-shower,  the  lightning  killed 
a  child  and  struck  a  large  chestnut-tree  on  the  top  of 
Great  Hill,  breaking  a  piece  of  it  off. 

16.  I  shall  grant  what  you  ask  readily. 

17.  We  also  get  salt  from  the  ocean,  which  is  verv  useful  to 

man. 

18.  A  steel  engraving  is  suspended  from  the  back  end  of 

the  hall,  of  the  "  Heroes  of  the  Kevolution." 

19.  The  old  woman  used  to  tell  us  how  her  son  died  in  a 

way  that  took  the  color  from  our  childish  faces. 

20.  And  so,  amid  the  laughter  of  my  friends,  aged  25  years, 

weighing  114  lbs.,  never  having  sowed  an  oat  or 
milked  a  cow,  I  laid  away  the  yardstick  and  took 
up  the  fork  and  hoe. 

21.  The  Romans  understood  liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we. 

22.  .Tohn  Keats,  the  second  of  four  children    like  Chaucer 

and  Spenser,  was  a  Londoner. 

23.  I  rashly  once,  and  only  once,  tried  to  keep  up  with  him 

on  a  snow-slide,  and  only  succeeded  in  making  luyself 
feel,  from  my  head  to  my  heels,  like  a  very-much- 
grated  nutmeg. 


SENTENCES.  213 

24.  The  quick-silver  mines  of  Idiia,  in  Austria  (which  were 
discovered  in  1797,  by  a  peasant,  who,  catching  some 
water  from  a  spring,  found  the  tub  so  heavy  that  he 
coiild  not  move  it,  and  the  bottom  covered  with  a 
shining  substance  which  turned  out  to  be  mercury) 
yield  every  year,  over  three  hundred  thousand  pounds 
of  that  valuable  metal. 

2f).  The  Great  Stone  Face  was  discovered  while  building  a 
road  through  the  Notch. 

26.  She  is  a  perfect  woman  ;  or,  at  any  rate,  as  nearly  per- 

fect as  ever  a  woman  was. 

27.  Human  beings  have  and  do  inhabit  these  dreary  regions. 

28.  Everything   is  as   clean  as  possible,   which   is  scrupu- 

lously so. 

29.  Thouo-h  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  vet  it  mav 

often  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune. 

30.  This  is  the  principle  I  refer  to. 

31.  I  am  an  early  riser,  but  my  wife  is  a  Presbyterian. 

32.  A  squirrel  can  climb  a  tree  quicker  than  a  boy. 

33.  They  saw  sailing  down  the  river  in  a  dreadful  proces- 

sion, dead  bodies,  roofs  of  houses,  trees,  cows, 
horses,  and  the  surface  of  the  water  was  strewn  with 
boards. 

34.  The   beaux   of    that   day  used  the   abominable   art  of 

painting  their  faces  as  well  as  the  women. 
3.5.    Tlie  cellar  of  the  school-house  is  still  somewhat  visible, 

in  which  a  girl  of  thirteen  years  saved  herself  from 

the  tomahawk  in  the  massacre,  and  afterward  became 

the  wife  of  a  Methodist  minister. 
3n.    The   AVest   End  is   considerably   worked   up   over   the 

mysterious  disappearance  from  home  of  Mr.  Jenkins, 

who  resides  at  45  William  St.,  without  the  knowledge 

of  his  friends  and  relatives. 
37.    This  is  a  hospitnl  for  old  veteran  soldierso 


214 


r.ERSOXS    IX   ENGLISH. 


38.  A  polished  copper  plate  is  covered  with  varnish  or  wax 

prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  upon  it  is  drawn,  line 
for  line,  as  it  is  intended  to  appear  on  paper  with  a 
sharp  needle,  which  scratches  through  the  preparation 
on  the  plate,  leaving  it  bare. 

39.  He  has  already  and  will  in  the  future,  study  German. 

40.  Cheese  are  higher,  and  we  think  that  we  are  lower  than 

any  other  house  in  the  city  on  the  price. 

41.  Deceased  was  last  seen  by  a  policeman  at  11  oVlock 

Wednesday  night,  on  the  New  York  dock,  with  his 
feet  hanging  over  the  pier  conversing  with  a  desper- 
ate thief. 

42.  For  Sale.     New  Mackerel  in  ten-pound  kits  and  five- 

pound  tins,  heads  and  tails  otT. 

43.  Hjdrophobia  (which  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words, 

meaning  fear  of  ivater,  and  is  so  called  from  the 
aversion  to  that  element  which  it  produces  in  liuman 
patients  suffering  from  its  attack,  though  it  seldom 
causes  a  similar  aversion  in  the  animal  from  whose  bite 
it  originates)  sometimes  does  not  display  itself  for 
months  after  the  poison  has  been  received  into  the 
system. 

44.  He  has  the  refusal  of   the  lot  which  fronts  TrumV)nll 

Street  for  a  week. 

45.  No  one  would  have  guessed  the  relations  that  had  once 

existed  (perhaps  existed  still)  between  these  two. 

46.  She  then  spoke  and  said,  "  What  can  I  do  for  you,  my 

poor  child  ?  " 

47.  The  muffs  carried  this  season  —  some  of  them  at  least 

—  are  very  small. 

48.  He  should  never  marry  a  woman  in  high  life  that  has 

no  money. 

49.  Just  after  the  big  sloops  crossed  the  finish  line,  a  heavy 

rain  storm  set  in  witli  a  dense  fog,  and  the  finish  of 


8 

i 


SENTENCES.  215 

the  schooners  and  smaller  classes  could  not  be  seen 
except  from  the  judges'  boat,  and  only  with  difficulty 
then. 

50.  We  soon  came  upon  a  little  diminutive  rivulet. 

51.  The  subject  of  which  I  shall  now  treat  is  not  a  subject 

of  general  interest ;  but  no  other  subject  is  of  greater 
importance  to  the  subjects  of  this  kingdom. 

52.  The  remains  of  a  man  killed  forty  years  ago  were  dis- 

covered, ploughing  in  Central  Garden. 

53.  The  same  artist's  full-length  portrait  of   Ex-President 

Haj'es  was  sent  to  Harvard  College,  where  it  is  to 
hang  in  the  Memorial  Hall,  last  week. 

54.  The  boat  pushed  off  to  the  shore,  but  speedily  returned 

with  a  dying  man,  which  the  Chinese  had  placed  in 
the  boat,  who  they  affirmed  had  been  mortally 
wounded  from  the  blow  which  had  l^eeu  received  from 
the  piece  of  wood. 

55.  My  Christian  and  surname  begin  and  end  with  the  same 

letter. 

56.  Soon  the  sky  grew  dark  and  then  darker,  until  it  was 

almost  black,  then  the  thunder  began,  and  soon  came 
the  rain,  and  all  nature  was  refreshed,  but  we  were 
more  than  refreshed,  as  we  could  find  no  shelter. 

57.  The  mosaic  portraits  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  l)ishops 

encrust  the  long  surface  above  the  finely-wrought 
round  archways,  which  terminate  in  a  tribune  that  is 
entered  through  a  royal  arch,  inlaid  with  precious 
colors  that  have  defied  moisture  and  damp,  and  are  as 
brilliant  as  when  the  ancient  workmen  embedded 
them  there. 

58.  We  cannot  excel  in  any  work  without  attention  to  the 

trifling  minutiae. 

59.  The  forbidding  by  husbands  of  the  public  to  trust  their 

wives  occupies  the  papers  in  this  vicinity  a  good  deal 
of  late. 


i 


i 


216  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

60.  Alfred  the  Great  was  noted  for  the  ease  with  which  he 
remembered  the  songs  of  the  minstrels  and  his  taste 
for  the  literatnre  of  that  time. 

(;i.  I  have  just  made  arrangements  for  forwarding  four 
bales  of  goods. 

62.  He  blew  out  his  brains  after  bidding  his  wife  good  by 

with  a  gun. 

63.  But  we  have  duplicates  of  each,  agreeing  in  movement 

though  differing  in  measure,  and  which  make  different 
impressions  on  the  ear. 

64.  The  weight  of  the   skeleton  alone    [of  a  wkale]    was 

thirty-one  tons,  and  was  afterwards  exhibited  in  Lon- 
don and  Paris. 

6").    These  various  delays  delayed  the  commencement  of  the  1 

battle. 

66.  We  are  both  agreed  that  the  sentence  is  wrong. 

67.  The  manufacture  of  China  ware,  which  is  employed  both 

for  useful  and  ornamental  purposes  in  China,  has  been 
practised  in  that  country  from  such  an  early  period 
that  tradition  is  even  silent  not  only  as  to  the  date  of 
its  origin,  but  also  as  to  the  name  of  the  individual  to 
whom  the  nation  is  indebted  for  the  discover}'. 

68.  Tlie  President  is  represented  in  life  size  and  stands  in 

front  of  a  red  curtain  and  l)y  a  chair  covered  with  red 
stuff  on  which  lie  his  coat,  hat,  and  a  roll  of  paper, 
ens;ao;ed  in  conversation. 

69.  Dr.    .Tohnson    was   once   arrested   for   a   debt   of    five 

guineas,  the  author  of  the  dictionary. 

70.  No  learning  is  generally  so  dearly  bought,  or  so  valu- 

able when  it  is  bought,  as  the  learning  that  we  learn 
in  the  school  of  experience. 

71.  Sacred  to  the  memory  of  John  Stone,  who  lost  his  life 

at  sea  while  attempting  to  rescue  a  passenger  who 
accidentally  fell  overboard,  aged  19  years. 


SENTENCES.  217 

72.  In  colder  waters  they  prey  upon  the  white  whale,  that  is 

somewhat  sluggish  in  its  movements,  —  at  least,  when 
compared  to  its  murderous  cousin. 

73.  Few  people  learn  anything  that  is  wortli  learning  easih". 

74.  Mr.  Carlyle  has  taught  us  that  silence  is  golden  in  thirty 

volumes. 

75.  At  the  Red  Men's  base-ball  game  Friday  afternoon,  a 

victim  of  a  fracture  was  made  of  a  member  of  the 
Pootatuck  nine  :     Johnson  broke  his  left  wrist. 

76.  After  meals  they  drink  their  coffee  and  smoke  their  cig- 

arettes, women  as  well  as  men. 

77.  He  received  my  remarks  on  the  terrors  which  he  seeks 

to  inspire  with  great  good  nature. 

78.  AVe  have  two  school-rooms  sufficiently  large  to  accom- 

modate one  hundred  and  fifty  pupils,  one  above  the 
other. 

79.  In  merely  correcting  the  grammar,  the  sentence  may  be 

left  inelegant. 

80.  The  reason  I  ask  you  to  do  this  is  because  yon  don't 

seem  to  have  anvthing  else  to  do. 

81.  "Work  has  been  resumed  again  at  the  feldspar  quarry. 

It  is  carried  to  Bedford  Station,  on  the  Harlem  Rail- 
road, and  forwarded  to  New  York. 

82.  The    instrument    had    been    purchased    (appropriately 

enough  "  for  a  mere  song")  for  Martha  years  ago. 

83.  I  never  saw  such  a  boy  in  ni}'  life. 

84.  The  spire  of  the  church  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in 

the  state,  and  the  interior  has  Ijeen  decorated. 

85.  We  should  constantly  observe  the  wav  words  are  used 

by  the  best  writers. 

86.  A  chain  of  confections  in  imitation  of  silver  held  the 

bird  of  wisdom  to  his  candied  perch,  the  links  of 
which  were  as  nicely  made  as  the  links  of  a  watch- 
chain. 


218  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

87.  Cheops  built  the  largest  iDyramid  in  Egypt  which  bears 

his  name. 

88.  She  had  a  child  in  the  carriage  that  she  called  Alphonso. 

89.  The  carriage  stopped  at  the  small  gate  which  led  by  a 

short  gravel  walk  to  the  house  amidst  the  nods  and 
smiles  of  the  whole  party. 

90.  Each  clergyman   declares   aloud  that   he  believes   it  a 

dozen  times  every  year  of  his  life, 

91.  After  the  great  flood  at  Mill  Eiver  (the  havoc  caused  by 

which  is  vividly  remembered  by  the  Connecticut  Leg- 
islature which  visited  the  scene  of  the  disaster)  he 
took  the  contract  for  rebuilding  the  bridges.  v 

92.  If  I  mistake  not,  I  think  I  have  seen  you  ])efore,  f 

93.  The  leaves  of  plants  radiate  the  heat  which  comes  to  "• 

them  from  the  sun  with  great  rapidity. 

94.  From  the  deacon's  house  she  wandered  to  the  mountains  ;-, 

and  found  this  cave,  by  what  means  no  one  ever  knew, 
and  made  it  her  home,  as  she  called  it. 

95.  His  estimate,  then,  is  that  the  industrious  and  skilled  in 

all  trades  are  better  off  or  in  improved  circumstances 
to  an  extent  that  should  be  admitted,  as  most  decided 
and  perceptible,  over  their  condition  and  circumstances 
ten  3'^ears  ago. 

96.  The  Gilyaks  rank  several  degrees  lower  in  the  scale  of 

beauty,  or  rather  the  lack  of  it. 

97.  We  did  not  find  anything  in  the  domestic  architecture 

very  characteristic  and  which  spoke  even  in  the  mild- 
est way  of  Roman  power  or  Gothic  force, 

98.  He  is  a  man  of  truth  and  veracity. 

99.  We  fear  that  Mother  will  never  recover  back  her  health 

again. 

1 00.  She  is  fairer,  but  not  so  amiable  as  her  sister, 

101.  Homer  was  the  greater  genius,  but  Virgil  is  thought  to 

have  excelled  him  as  an  artist. 


SENTENCES.  219 

102.  The  following  is  a  copy  iu  the  handwriting  of  a  lady 

who  died  110  years  ago  of  Quaker  "grace  before 
meat "  iu  Philadelphia. 

103.  Having  been  in  Paris  for  the  express  purpose  of  select- 

ing the  very  newest  that  the  Parisian  market  affords, 
you  are  most  respectfully  invited  to  call  and  inspect, 
assuring  you  that  you  will  find  my  stock  of  special 
interest. 

104.  1  notice  your  advertisement  for  an  organist  and  music- 

teacher,  either  lady  or  gentleman.  Having  been 
both  for  several  years,  I  offer  you  my  services. 

105.  The  committee  would  further  recommend  some  change 

in  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  building,  as  a 
large  number  of  seats  have  long  been  occupied  by 
the  scholars  that  have  no  backs. 

106.  Her  own  story  was  that  she  had  a  quarrel  with  the 

deceased,  first  about  her  wages,  and  secondly  about 
the  soup,  and  that  she  seized  the  deceased  by  the 
throat,  and  she  fell,  and  when  she  got  up,  she  was 
looking  for  something  to  strike  her  with,  and  upon 
this  she  struck  the  deceased  a  blow  on  the  throat, 
and  she  fell  and  died  almost  instantaneously. 

107.  The  kangaroo  is  the  largest  quadruped  yet  discovered 

in  Australia,  measuring,  when  full  grown,  about  five 
feet  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  tail,  the  tail 
being  about  three  feet,  and  weighing  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

108.  You  have  already  been  informed  of  the  sale  of  Ford's 

Theatre,  where  Mr.  Lincoln  was  assassinated,  for 
religious  purposes. 

109.  The  name  of  our  teacher  is  Miss  Merton,  and  a  very 

good  one  when  she  cares  to  be. 

110.  Homer  was  not  only  the  maker  of  a  nation,  but  of  a 

language  and  of  a  religion. 


220  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 


111.  As  we  came  along  the  road,  we  came  to  a  field  where 

a  very  pleasant-faced  peasant  was  making  hay. 

112.  The  very  things  which  I  needed  for  the  journey  which 

I  was  going  to  make  were  not  to  be  procured  in  the 
little  village  which  was  then  my  home. 

113.  She  is  a  widow  woman  with  two  twin  daughters. 

114.  Mr.  Brooks  played  a  very  noble  overture. 

115.  A  shell  exploded  to-day  at  the  Waxholm  fort,  com- 

manding the  approach  to  the  city,  killing  nineteen 
men  and  wounding  many  others,  including  three 
officers. 

116.  Thanking  our  man}'  customers  for  thek  patronage  in 

the  past  and  hoping  to  serve  them  better  in  the 
future  will  be  the  ambition  of  the  firm. 

117.  Wanted,  a  horse  for  a  lady,  weighing  about  nine  hun- 

dred pounds. 

118.  The  sort  of  weed  which  I  most  hate   (if  I  can  be  said 

to  hate  anything  which  grows  in  my  own  garden)  is 
the  "  pusley,"  a  fat,  ground-clinging,  spreading, 
greasy  thing,  and  the  most  propagations  (it  is  not 
my  fault  if  the  word  is  not  in  the  dictionary)  plant 
I  know. 

119.  Died.     In  this  city.    August   3,  Kate,   only  child   of 

John  and  Mary  Smith,  and  grandchild  of  Jacob 
Smith,  aged  six  months. 

120.  Strayed  or  Stolen.     From  the  vicinity  of  Lake  AVhit- 

ney,  a  bay  mare  with  a  white  star  in  her  forehead, 
hitched  to  a  business  wagon,  running  part  yellow. 

121.  He  never  spoke  to  me,  never  sought  to  make  his  pres- 

ence an  intrusion  in  any  way  ;  he  irritated  me,  never- 
theless. 

122.  It  was  just  at  this  time  tliat  the  handwriting  appeared 

upon  the  wall  which  Daniel  interpreted. 


SENTENCES.  221 

123.  Wanted,  a  nurse  for  :i  child  two  years  old,  who  is  a 
sjood  seamstress. 

121.  When  that  tremendous  clap  of  thunder  came,  every- 
body thought  he  was  struck  within  a  radius  of  a 
mile. 

125.  One  raoruiug  when  they  orose  to  their  astonishment 
they  saw  a  beautiful  marble  palace  built  for  King 
Cadmus. 


REFERENCES. 

Lectures  on  Rhetoric.     Blair. 

Composition  and  Rhetoric.     Hart. 

Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Comi^osition.     D.  J.  HiU- 

Principles  of  Rhetoric.     A.  S.  Hill. 

Practical  Rhetoric.     Clark. 

Essentials  of  English.     AVelsh. 

Complete  Rhetoric.     Welsh. 

Complete  Rhetoric.     Bardeen. 


222  iiEsso:NS  in  English. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


PUNCTUATION. 


Uses  of  Piinctiiatioii  Marks.  —  The  chief  uses  of 
punctuation  marks  are  the  following :  — 

1.  To  make  the  meaning  clear. 

2.  To  show  the  grammatical  construction. 

Value  of  Correct  Punctuation.  —  The  following 
illustration  furnishes  abundant  proof  that  the  study  of 
punctuation  is  too  important  to  be  neglected.  With 
one  style  of  punctuation,  we  have  the  following  start- 
ling statement :  — 

*'  Every  lady  iu  this  laud 
Hath  twenty  nails  upon  each  hand  ; 
Five  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet. 
And  this  is  true,  without  deceit." 

By  a  slight  change  of  punctuation,  the  true  meaning 
becomes  apparent :  — 

"  Every  lady  in  this  laud 
Hath  twenty  nails  :  upon  each  hand 
Five  ;  and  twent}'  on  hands  and  feet. 
And  this  is  true,  without  deceit." 

General  Rules  for  Punctuation.  —  Learn  to  punc- 
tuate a  sentence  while  you  are  writing  it,  indicating  b}' 
the  proper  marks  the  grammatical  relations  between 


PUNCTUATION.  223 

the  parts  of  the  sentence.  Many  pupils  form  the  bad 
habit  of  writing  a  whole  paragraph  and  then  sprinkling 
in  the  commas  afterAvards.  This  is  almost  as  bad  as  it 
would  be  to  write  the  paragraph  and  then  go  over  it  to 
dot  the  i's  and  cross  the  ^'s.  Remember  that,  while 
punctuation  is,  to  some  extent,  a  matter  of  individual 
taste  and  judgment,  there  are  certain  fixed  rules  which 
every  person  of  fair  education  is  expected  to  observe. 
These  special  rules  will  be  considered  in  order. 

The    Most    Coniiiion    Punctuation    Marks.  —  The 

points  most  frequently  used  are  the  Comma,  the  Semi- 
colon, the  Colon,  and  the  Period.  The  Period  marks 
the  close  of  a  sentence.  The  Comma,  the  Semicolon, 
and  the  Colon  mark  three  degrees  of  separation  in  the 
parts  of  a  sentence.  The  Comma  should  be  used  to 
indicate  the  smallest  degree  of  separation ;  the  Semi- 
colon, a  greater  degree ;  and  the  Colon,  the  greatest  of 
all.  This  simple  rule  may  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing sentences :  — 

1.  Three  of  the  most  important  modern  languages  are  the 

French,  the  German,  and  the  English. 

2.  Three  of  the  most  important  modern  languages  are  the 

French,  which  is  the  most  graceful ;  the  German, 
which  is  the  most  forcible  ;  and  the  English,  which 
contains  the  good  elements  of  both  the  others. 

3.  Three  of  the  most  unportaut  modern  languages  are  the 

following :  the  French,  which  is  the  most  graceful ; 
the  German,  which  is  the  most  forcible ;  and  the 
English,  which  contains  the  good  elements  of  both 
the  others. 


224  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

SPECIAL   RULES   FOR   THE   COMMA. 

Rule  1.  Words  or  Phrases  in  Pairs.  —  Words  or 
phrases  in  pairs  should  have  a  comma  placed  after  each 
pair. 

Ex.  "  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give 
my  hand  and  my  heart  to  this  vote." 

"  The  sunny  morning  and  the  gloomy  midnight,  the  hleak 
winter  and  the  halmy  spring,  alike  speak  to  us  of  the 
Creator's  power." 

Rule  2.  Contrasted  Words  or  Phrases. — Words  or 
phrases  which  are  contrasted  with  each  other  should  be 
separated  by  commas. 

"  We  live  in  deeds,  not  years." 

"  There  are  few  voices  in  the  world,  but  many  echoes." 

Rule  3.  Inverted  Expressions.  —  Phrases  and 
clauses  which,  by  inversion,  are  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  sentences,  should  be  followed  by  commas. 

Ex.  "Wearied  by  his  London  life,  Irvin»  started  for  a 
tour  on  the  Continent." 

"  In  front,  the  vieyi;  stretches  away  to  the  Brighton  mead- 
ows and  hills." 

Rule  4.  Introductory  and  Parenthetical  Expres- 
sions.—  Words  and  phrases  which  are  used  to  intro- 
duce a  sentence,  or  which  are  thrown  loosely  between 
other  parts  of  the  sentence  without  being  essential  to 
its  meaning,  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  commas. 

Ex.  "  Now,  if  there  was  one  quality  on  which  that  gen- 
tleman prided  himself  more  than  on  another,  it  was  the 
superiority  of  his  manners." 


PUNCTUATION.  225 

"  I  think,  also,  that  •  The  Vision  of  Sir  Laiinfal '  owed  its 
success  quite  as  much  to  a  presentation  of  nature  as  to  its 
misty  legend." 

Rule  5.  Intermediate  Expressions.  —  Expressions 
which  are  not  parenthetical,  but  which  come  between 
two  important  parts  of  the  sentence,  as  between  subject 
and  predicate,  between  the  predicate  verb  and  the  direct 
object,  or  between  the  parts  of  a  quotation,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex.  "  The  vessel,  you  must  understand,  was  so  long  and 
broad  and  ponderous  that  the  united  force  of  all  the  fifty  was 
insufficient  to  shove  her  into  the  water." 

'•  I  am  the  king's  daughter,"  she  said  to  him,  "  and  my 
name  is  ^Nledea." 

Note.  —  If  the  intermediate  expression  is  restrictive, 
so  that  it  is  inseparable  in  idea  from  what  precedes,  no 
comma  should  be  used. 

Ex.  The  tree  by  the  garden  gate  was  blown  down  last 
nio;ht. 

The  subject  of  the  verb  is  not  The  tree,  but  The  tree 
hy  the  garden  gate.  The  expression  hy  the  garden  gate 
is,  therefore,  said  to  be  restrictive,  since  it  restricts  the 
meaning  of  the  word  tree  to  one  particular  object  of  the 
kind. 

Rule  6.  A  Series  of  Words  or  Phrases.  —  Words 
or  phrases  in  the  same  construction,  forming  a  series, 
should  ordinarily  be  separated  from  each  other  by 
commas. 

Ex.  "The  sea  carried  men,  spars,  casks,  planks,  bul- 
warks, heaps  of  such  toys,  into  the  boiling  surge." 


226  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Note  1.  —  If  there  are  but  two  words  or  phrases, 
and  they  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  no-  comma  is 
needed. 

Ex.  "We  think  with  reverence  and  gratitude  of  their 
toils  and  sacrifices." 

Note  2.  —  If  there  are  more  than  two  words  or 
phrases,  with  a  conjunction  between  each  two,  no  com- 
mas are  needed. 

Ex.  "The  baclv  of  the  cliair  was  curiously  carved  in 
open  work,  so  as  to  represent  flowers  and  fruit  and  foliage." 

Note  3.  —  If  the  last  two  words  or  phrases  are  not 
connected  by  a  conjunction,  a  comma  should  be  placed 
after  the  series,  unless  what  follows  is  a  single  word  or 
a  short  expression  very  closely  connected  with  the 
series. 

Ex.  "  The  katydids,  the  grasshoppers,  tlie  crickets,  make 
themselves  heard." 

"  We  are  fearfully,  wonderfully  made." 

"  One  deep,  intense,  ominous  silence  pervades  that  dan- 
gerous assembly."     [Close  connection.] 

Note  4.  —  If  the  conjunction  is  omitted  except  be- 
tween the  last  two  words,  the  better  usage  is  to  place  a 
comma  before  the  conjunction. 

Ex.  "  The  Teutonic  invaders  belonged  to  three  tribes,  — 
the  Jutes,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Angles." 

Note  5.  —  If  two  or  more  adjectives  precede  a  noun, 
they  should  not  be  separated  from  each  other  by  com- 
mas, unless  they  are  in  the  same  construction. 

Ex.    She  wore  a  pair  of  soiled  white  kid  gloves. 


PUNCTUATION.  227 

Notice  that  while  kid  qualifies  gloves^  white  qualifies 
the  phrase  kid  gloves  ;  aud  soiled,  the  phrase  ivhite  kid 
(/loves.  These  three  adjectives  are  not,  therefore,  in 
the  same  construction,  and  do  not  form  a  series. 

Kule  7.  Nouns  in  Apposition.  —  Words  in  apposi- 
tion should,  with  their  modifiers,  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex.  "  When  Jason,  the  sou  of  the  dethroned  Kiug  of 
lok'hos,  was  a  little  boy,  he  was  sent  away  from  his  parents, 
and  placed  under  the  queerest  schoolmaster  that  ever  you 
heard  of." 

Note  1.  —  If  one  of  the  terms  in  apposition  is  a  gen- 
eral title,  the  comma  should  be  omitted. 

Ex.    Queen  Artemisia  built  the  famous  Mausoleum. 
The  poet  Lowell  is  a  native  of  Cambridge. 

Note  2.  —  A  title  or  a  degree,  following  the  name  of 
a  person,  should  be  separated  from  the  name  by  a 
comma. 

Ex.    Address  John  W.  Dixon,  Secretary. 
Rev.   T.  T.   Hunger,   D.D.,  is  the  author   of  "On  the 
Threshold." 

Note  3.  —  If  the  pronoun  is  used  with  the  noun, 
for  emphasis  or  in  direct  address,  the  comma  may  be 
omitted. 

Ex.  "  Hawthorne  himself  could  scarcely  have  imagined  a 
wilder,  stranger  story."     [Emphasis.] 

"  Ye  men  of  Athens,  I  perceive  that  in  all  things  ye  are 
too  superstitious."     [Address.] 

Rule  8.  Xoiins  Independent  by  Address.  —  Nouns 
or  phrases  which   are  independent   by  direct   address 


228  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas. 

Ex.  "  Go  along,  my  good  Jason,  and  my  blessing  go 
with  you." 

Note.  —  If  strong  emotion  is  to  be  indicated,  the  ex- 
clamation point  should  be  used  instead  of  the  comma. 

Ex.  "  Accursed  tree  !"  cried  the  chief  justice,  gnashing 
his  teeth,  "  would  that  thou  hadst  been  left  standing  till 
Hancock,  Adams,  and  every  other  traitor  were  hanged  upon 
thy  branches  !  " 

"  Rule  9.  Nouns  in  the  Case  Absolute.  —  Expres- 
sions containing  the  case  absolute  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex.  "Peace  being  declared  ])etween  France  and  England 
in  1748,  the  governor  had  now  an  opportunity  to  sit  at  his 
ease  in  Grandfather's  chair." 

Rule  10.  Relative  Clauses.  —  A  relative  clause 
which  is  not  restrictive  but  which  presents  an  additional 
thought,  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  commas. 

Ex.  "  The  man,  who  proved  to  be  an  escaped  convict,  had 
in  liis  possession  one  of  the  missing  papers."  [Additional 
thought.] 

' '  The  man  who  had  first  spoken  then  arose  and  asked  the 
attention  of  the  audience."     [Restrictive.] 

Note  1.  —  If  the  relative  pronoun  is  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  a  word  or  a  phrase  inclosed  in  commas,  a 
comma  should  be  placed  before  the  relative  clause, 
whether  restrictive  or  not. 


PUNCTUATIOTr.  229 

Ex.  "How  beautiful  the  long,  mild  Iwiliii'lit,  wliich.  like 
a  silver  clasp,  unites  to-day  with  yesterday  !  " 

Note  2.  —  A  restrictive  relative  clause  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  comma,  if  several  words  come  between  the 
relative  pronoun  and  its  antecedent. 

Ex.  "No  American  could  have  died,  who  would  have 
been  more  universally  mourned  than  Longfellow." 

Note  3.  —  If  the  relative  pronoun  refers  to  each  of  a 
series  of  nouns,  it  should  be  separated  from  the  series 
by  a  comma. 

Ex.  "  He  had  hopes,  fears,  and  longings,  which  his 
friends  could  not  share." 

Rule  11.     Dependent  and  Conditional  Clauses. — 

Dependent  and  conditional  clauses,  commonly  intro- 
duced by  such  words  as  zf,  when,  unless,  though,  etc., 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas,  unless  the  connection  is  very  close. 

Ex.  "  If  youth  are  taught  hoiv  to  think,  they  will  soon 
learn  what  to  think." 

"  Were  all  these  changing  beauties  of  form  and  color  to 
disappear,  how  unsightly,  dull,  and  dreary  would  be  tliis 
world  of  ours  !  " 

Hawthorne  was  four  years  old  when  his  father  died. 
[Close  connection.] 

Rule  12.  Co-ordinate  Expressions.  —  In  continued 
sentences,  the  co-ordinate  clauses,  if  simple  in  con- 
struction, should  be  separated  by  commas. 

Ex.  Captain  Hull  then  took  a  key  from  his  pocket,  I 
unlocked  the  chest,  and  together  we  lifted  its  ponderous  lid. 


230  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Rule  13.  Omission  of  a  Verl).  —  In  continued  sen- 
tences, containing  a  common  verb,  the  omission  of  this 
verb  in  any  clause  except  the  first  should  be  marked 
by  a  comma. 

Ex.  "  Carthage  has  crossed  the  Alps  ;  Rome,  [has  crossed] 
the  seas." 

Rule  14.  Short  Quotations.  —  Short  quotations,  or 
expressions  resembling  quotations,  should  be  preceded 
by  commas. 

Ex.  It  has  been  well  said,  "The  tongue  is  a  little  mem- 
1)er  and  boasteth  great  thinos," 

The  question  now  is,  How  shall  we  know  what  are  good 
books  ? 

EXERCISE. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rule  for 
each  comma. 

1 .  The  books  which  help  you  most  are  those  which  make 

you  think  most. 

2.  One  of   the  best  books  I  ever  read  "  Little  Women" 

was  written  by  Miss  Alcott. 

3.  The  first  lady  wore  a  large  bonnet;  the  second  a  small 

])onnet ;  and  the  third  no  bonnet  at  all. 

4.  On  the  shelves  of  this  cupboard  used  to  lie  bundles  of 

sweet   marjoram  ,  and  pennyroyal   ainl  lavender  and 
mint  and  catnip. 

5.  The   turtles,  head  tail  and   claws  were  striped   yellow 

black  and  red.  ^ 

6.  Silks  rustled  plumes  waved  and  jewelled  embroideries 

flashed  from  Genoa  velvet. 

7.  As  a  rule  the  French  are  fond  of  fine  funerals. 

8.  Isaac's   father   being  dead   Mrs   Newton   was  married 

again  to  a  clergyman. 


PUNCTUATION.  231 

3.    "  Well  said  wise  man  with  the  one  sandal/'  cried  he. 
iO.    Truth  to  say  he  was  a  conscientious  man  and  ever  bore 
in  mind  the  golden  maxim  "  Spare  the  rod  and  spoil 
the  child." 

1 1 .  Like  many  authors  Whittier  has  been  attracted  in  the 

autumn  of  his  life  to  the  rich  fields  of  Oriental  lit- 
erature. 

12.  Death  thinned  their  ranks  but  could  not  shake  their  souls. 

lo.  While  leading  this  quiet  uneventful  life  Hawthorne  be- 
gan to  keep  note-books  in  which  he  recorded  what  he 
saw  on  his  walks  what  he  heard  other  people  say  and 
thoughts  and  fancies  that  came  to  him  through  the 
dav  and  night 

14.    They  are  not  lost  but  only  gone  before, 
lo.    Irving  was  born  in   1783;    LongfelloAv  in    1807;    and 
Holmes  in  1809. 

16.  A  good  motto  for  you  my  young  friends^ is  Make  haste 

slowly. 

17.  The  things  which  after  all  sharply  distinguish  Holmes 

from  other  poets  are  the  lyrics  and  metrical  essays 
composed  for  special  audiences  and  occasions. 

18.  Longfellow  loved  the  lights  and  beacons  the  mist  and 

fog-bells  the  sleet  and  surge  of  winter. 

19.  There  are  chance  pictures  of  Acadian  fields  New  World 

rivers  prairies  bayous  forests  by  moonlight  and  star- 
light and  midday  ;  glimpses  too  of  picturesque  figures 
artisans  and  farmers , soldiery  trappers, boatmen  emi- 
grants and  priests. 

20.  Nothing  great   or   good  can  be  accomplished  without 

labor  and  toil. 

21.  Whittier's  stor3',"The  Rattlesnake  Hunter"  is  based 

upon  this  fact. 

22.  "  Be  ready  to  come  when  I  ring  the  bell"  said  the  old 

lady. 


232  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

2P).    Miss    Margaret  had   deep   calm   honest   hhie   eyes   and 

wavy  light  brown  hair. 
24.    Critics  historians  essayists  and  poets  who  had  long  been 

Hawthorne's  friends  joined  in  the  procession  to  the 

grave  beneath  the  pines. 
2').    "  I  was  moderately  stndious"  says  Doctor  Holmes  "  and 

ver}'  fond  of  reading  stories  which  I  sometimes  did  in 

school  hours." 

RULES   FOR   THE   SEMICOLON. 

Rule  1.  Subdivided  Members  of  Couipound  Sen- 
tences. —  If  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are 
complex  in  construction,  or  if  they  contain  commas, 
they  should  be  separated  by  semicolons. 

Ex.  "  The  seed  which  you  sow  is  not  lost ;  and  the  good 
which  you  do  is  not  forgotten." 

"Holmes  is,  like  Lowell,  a  humorist;  but,  like  Lowell,  he 
knows  how  to  be  earnest,  serious,  and  even  pathetic." 

Rule  2.    Short  Sentences  connected  in  Meaning. — 

Short  sentences  which  have  some  connection  in  mean- 
ing, but  no  grammatical  dependence  upon  one  another, 
should  be  separated  by  semicolons. 

Ex.  "  The  blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray  ;  the 
great  watch-stars  shut  up  their  holy  eyes  ;  the  east  began  to 
kindle." 

Note.  —  If  the  sentences  are  short,  simple  in  meaning, 
and  very  closely  connected,  they  should  be  separated  by 
commas. 

Ex.  "  The  fire  burns,  the  water  drowns,  the  air  consumes, 
the  earth  buries." 


PUNCTUATION.  233 

Rule  8.    Clauses  hjiving  Commou  Dependence.  — 

Clauses  which  have  a  common  dependence  upon  another 
clause  should  be  separated  from  one  another  by  semi- 
colons. If  the  clause  upon  which  they  all  depend  comes 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the  clauses  should  be 
separated  from  it  by  a  comma ;  if  it  is  placed  at  the  end 
of  the  sentence,  the  comma  should  be  followed  by  a 
dash. 

Ex.  "Science  declares,  that  no  particle  of  matter  can  be 
destroyed  ;  that  each  atom  has  its  place  in  the  universe  ;  and 
that,  in  seeking  that  place,  each  obeys  certain  fixed  laws." 

"  The  darkening  foliage ;  the  embrowning  grain ;  the 
golden-fly  haunting  the  blackberry  bushes  ;  the  cawing  crows, 
that  looked  down  from  the  mountain  on  the  cornfield,  and 
waited  da}-  after  day  for  the  scarecrow  to  finish  his  work  and 
depart ;  and  the  smoke  of  far-off  burning  woods  that  per- 
vaded the  air  and  hung  in  purple  haze  about  the  summits  of 
the  mountains,  —  these  were  the  avant-couriers  and  attend- 
ants of  the  hot  August." 

Rule  4.  Additional  Clauses.  —  A  clause  which  is 
added  to  a  complete  sentence  by  way  of  explauation, 
should  be  preceded  by  a  semicolon,  if  the  clause  is  intro- 
duced by  a  conjunction. 

Ex.  "  The  water  of  the  river  Lethe  has  one  very  excellent 
({uality ;  for  a  single  draught  of  it  makes  people  forget  every 
care  and  sorrow." 

Note.  — When  a  rule  is  followed  by  an  examjjle  intro- 
duced by  the  word  as,  a  semicolon  should  be  placed 
before  as,  and  a  comma  after  it. 

Ex.  Almost  should  be  used  in  the  sense  of  nearly;  as, 
The  winter  is  almost  gone. 


234  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Rule  5.  Particulars  in  Apposition  to  General 
Term.  —  When  several  particulars  are  in  apposition  to 
a  general  term,  and  are  simple  in  form,  they  should  be 
separated  from  one  another  by  commas,  and  from  the 
general  term  by  a  semicolon. 

Ex.  Cambridge  has  given  us  three  noted  writers  ;  Holmes, 
Lowell,  and  Longfellow. 

Sentences,  as  considered  in  Grammar,  are  of  three  Ivinds  ; 
namely,  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound. 

EXERCISE. 


; 


Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rule  for  the 
use  of  each  comma  and  semicolon. 

1.  As  in  ascending  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Andes  we  at 
length  arrive  at  a  line  where  vegetation  ceases  and  the 
principle  of  life  seems  extinct  so  in  the  gradations  of 
human  character  there  is  an  elevation  which  is  never 
attained  by  mortal  man. 

2.  Emerson  tells  us  to  hitch  our  wagons  to  a  star  and  it 
is  a  good  thing  when  a  romance  has  a  permanent  place 
among  the  guide-books. 

3.  Examinations  are  formidable .  even  to  the  best  pre- 
pared for  the  greatest  fool  may  ask  more  than  the 
wisest  man  can  answer. 

4.  The  robins  are  not  good  solo  singers  but  their  chorus 
as  like  primitive  fire-worshippers  they  hail  the  return  of 
light  and  warmth  to  the  world  is  unrivalled. 

5.  Concord  has  been  the  home  of  four  famous  men 
namely  Thoreau  Alcott  Emerson  and  Hawthorne. 

6.  The-  singing  of  the  great  wood-fires  the  blowing  of 
the  wind  over  the  chinmey  tops  as  if  they  were  organ 


PUNCTUATION.  235 

pipes  the  splendor  of  the  spotless  snow  the  purple  wall 
built  round  the  horizon  at  sunset  the  sea-suggesting 
pines  with  the  moan  of  the  billows  in  their  branches  on 
which  the  snows  were  furled  like  sails '  the  northern 
lisrhts  the  stars  of  steel  the  transcendent  moonlight  and 
the  lovely  shadows  of  the  leafless  trees  upon  the  snow 
these  things  did  not  pass  unnoticed  or  unremembered. 

7.  To  be  really  wise  we  must  labor  after  knowledge;  to 
be  learned  we  must  study/to  be  great  in  anything  we 
must  have  patience. 

8.  The  science  of  numbers  measures  the  earth  it  weighs 
the  stars  it  illumines  the  universe  it  is  law  order  and 
beauty. 

9.  A  fisherman  it  is  true  had  noticed  her  little  foot-prints 
in  the  sand  as  he  went  homeward  along  the  beach  with  a 
basket  of  fish '  a  rustic  had  seen  the  child  stooping  to 
gather  flowers 'several  persons  had  heard  either  the  rat- 
tling of  chariot  wheels  or  the  rumbling  of  distant  thunder  ' 
and  one  old  woman  while  plucking  vervain  and  catnip 
had  heard  a  scream. 

10.  Bryant  was  robust  but  not  tyrannical  frugal  but  not 
severe  grave  yet  full  of  shrewd  and  kindly  humor. 

1 1 .  Wherefore  teach  them  their  multiplication  table  good 
Master  Cheever  and  whip  them  well  when  they  deserve 
it  for  much  of  the  country's  welfare  depends  upon  these 
boys. 

12.  You  remember  that  Bryant  first  won  his  fame  by  a 
hymn  to  death  and  so  I  think  the  first  poem  of  Long- 
fellow's which  won  recognition  for  him  was  that  transla- 
tion of  those  sounding  Spanish  lines  which  exalt  the 
majesty  of  death  and  sing  the  shortness  of  human  life. 

13.  These  tourists  insist  that  Emerson  lived  in  Thoreau's 
Hermitage  that  Thoreau  was  present  at  Concord  fight 


236  lp:ssons  m  English.  ' 

collecting  the  arrow-heads  of  the  invaders  that  Alcott 
wrote  "The  Scarlet  Letter"  that  Hawthorne  wore  a 
black  veil  ate  only  vegetables  and  never  looked  upon 
the  light  of  day. 

RULES   FOR   THE   COLON. 

Rule  1,  Subdivided  Members  of  Compound  Sen- 
tences. —  If  two  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are 
subdivided  by  semicolons,  they  should  be  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  colon. 

Ex.  "  Very  good,"  replied  the  dial :  "  but  recollect  that, 
though  you  may  think  of  a  million  strokes  in  an  instant,  you 
are  required  to  execute  but  one  ;  and  that,  however  often 
you  may  hereafter  have  to  swing,  a  moment  will  always  be 
given  you  to  swing  in." 

Rule  2.  Additional  Clauses.  —  If  a  clause  which  is 
added  to  a  complete  sentence  is  not  introduced  by  a  con- 
iiecting  word^  it  should  be  preceded  by  a  colon. 

Ex.  "  He  who  seldom  thinks  of  heaven  is  not  likely  to 
o'et  there  :  the  only  way  to  hit  the  mark  is  to  keep  the  eye 
iixed  upon  it." 

Rule  3.  Formal  Quotations.  —  A  quotation  which 
is  formally  introduced  should  be  preceded  by  a  colon. 
If  the  quotation  begins  on  a  new  line  or  occupies  sev- 
eral paragraphs,  the  colon  should  be  followed  by  a  dash. 

Ex.    His  voice,  exerted  to  its  utmost  power,  penetrated 

every  recess  and  corner  of  the  Seuate,  as  he  pronounced, 
in  deepest  tones  of  pathos,  these  words  of  solemn  signifi- 
cance :  "  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold,  for  the  last 
time,  the  sun  in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  hiui  shining  on  the 
broken  :ind  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union." 


PUNCTUATION.  237 

"  He  read  on  a  marble  tablet  in  the  chapel  wall  opposite, 
this  singular  inscription  :  — 

'  Look  not  mournfully  into  the  Past.  It  comes  not  back 
again.  Wisely  improve  the  Present.  It  is  thine.  Go  forth 
to  meet  the  shadowy  Future,  without  fear,  and  with  a  manly 
heart.' " 

Rule  4.  Particulars  in  Apposition  to  General 
Term.  —  When  several  particulars  in  apposition  to  a 
general  term  are  complex  in  form,  they  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  by  semicolons  and  from  the 
general  term  by  a  colon. 

Ex.  Cambridge  has  given  us  three  noted  writers  :  Holmes, 
who  is  known  as  "The  Autocrat";  Lowell,  whose  quaint 
Yankee  humor  sparkles  in  "The  Biglow  Papers";  and  the 
gentle  author  of  "Evangeline,"  our  loved  and  lamented 
Longfellow. 

EXEKOISE. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rule  for 
each  comma,  semicolon,  and  colon. 

1 .  Some  critics  are  like  chimney-sweepers  they  put  out 
the  fires  below  or  frighten  the  swallows  from  their  nests 
above  they  scrape  a  long  time  in  the  chimney  cover 
themselves  with  soot  and  bring  nothing  away  except  a 
bag  of  cinders  and  then  sing  from  the  top  of  the  house 
as  if  they  had  built  it. 

2.  Error  is  a  hardy  plant  it  flourishes  in  every  soil. 

3.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident  that  all  men 
are  created  equal  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Crea- 
tor with  certain  inalienable  rights  that  among  these  are 
life  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 


238  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

4.  Macaulay  says  of  Burleigh's  biographer  and  biogra- 
phy "  Such  a  book  might  before  the  deluge  have  been 
considered  as  light  reading  but  unhappily  the  life  of 
man  is  now  threescore  years  and  ten  and  we  cannot  but 
think  it  somewhat  unfair  in  Dr.  Nares  to  demand  from 
us  so  large  a  portion  of  so  short  an  existence." 

5.  During  the  last  winter  New  England  has  won  another 
victory  not  in  depth  of  snow  and  thickness  of  ice  for 
those  are  ancient  and  familiar  triumphs  of  the  pine  over 
the  palm. 

6.  The  perfect  purity  of  the  air  one  breathes  the  pro- 
cesses of  ventilation  which  are  constantlv  goins;  on  the 
sense  of  security  even  when  the  winds  are  whistling 
about  your  frail  shelter  all  these  things  combine  to  make 
the  tent  a  bedroom  so  delicious  that  the  fate  of  Endy- 
mion  would  become  a  blessing. 

7.  King  Midas  found  on  his  plate  not  a  gold-fish  but  a 
gold  fish  its  little  bones  were  golden  wires  and  its  scales 
were  thin  plates  of  gold. 

8.  The  English  language  is  composed  of  two  principal 
elements  the  Saxon  and  the  Classical. 

9.  The  English  language  is  composed  of  two  elements 
the  Saxon  which  includes  the  Danish  Swedish  and  other 
related  languages  and  the  Classical  which  includes  the 
Latin  and  the  Greek. 

10.    Youth  fades  love  droops  the  leaves  of  friendship  fall 
A  mother's  secret  hope  outlives  them  all. 

EULES   FOE   THE   PEEIOD. 

Rule  1.  Completed  Sentences.  —  The  period  should 
be  used  to  uiark  the  completion  of  every  sentence 
which  is  neither  interrogative  nor  exclamatory. 


PUNCTUATIOJ!f.  239 

Ex.    This  rule  does  not,  of   course,  apply  to  short  sen- 
tences which  form  a  series. 

Rule  2.  Abbreviations.  —  Every  abbreviation  should 
be  followed  by  a  period. 

Ex.   Rev.  Timothy  Dwight,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
Insert  these  corrections  on  pp.  34  and  56  of  the  M.S. 
See  Matt.   10 :  7,   8 ;    1   Sam.   v.  1-4.      [Both  styles  of 
punctuation  are  authorized  by  good  usage.] 

EXEEOISE. 
Punctuate  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  For  parallel  accounts  of  this  incident  see  Mark  5  21  43 

Luke  8  40  56  Matt  ix  18  31.  See  also  John  xv 
12  13. 

2.  Bought  1  bbl  flour  at  $12.50     3  bush  corn  at  87|c     24 

lbs  sugar  at  9c  3  gal  molasses  at  37^c  2  lbs  tea  at 
62^c  6  lbs  coffee  at  15c  and  4  lbs  butter  at  22c 
what  was  the  cost  of  the  whole  ? 

3.  Sold  to  J  P  F  mdse  as  follows 

Jan    18  1862  on  6m    75  yd  cloth  at  $4  $300 

Mar    12    "      "  3m  600  gal  molasses  at  33^c   $200 
June  15    "      "4m    50  bbl  flour  $8  $400 

Write  the  proper  abbreviations  for  the  following  expres- 
sions :  — 

1.  Anonymous,   manuscripts;    in  the  year  of  our  Lord; 

Bachelor  of  Arts ;  Connecticut,  Maine,  California, 
Florida,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Dakota  Territory,  West 
Indies. 

2.  Noon,  afternoon,  forenoon  ;  Member  of  Congress,  Fel- 

low of  the  Royal  Society,  Doctor  of  Laws  ;  Monsieur, 
Madame,  Messieurs,  Mademoiselle ;  South  Latitude, 
East  Longitude. 


240  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

RULES  FOR  THE  INTERROGATION  POINT. 

Rule  1.  Direct  Questions.  —  Every  direct  question 
should  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point. 

Ex.  "Are  you  awake,  Prince  Theseus? "  she  whispered. 
[Direct.] 

The  gentle  Ariadne  came  to  his  door,  and  asked  in  a  whis- 
per if  he  was  awake.      [Indirect.] 

Note  1.  —  Sometimes  the  sentence  is  not  expressed 
in  the  interrogative  form,  and  only  the  point  at  the  end 
shows  that  it  is  meant  to  be  a  question. 

Ex.  "You  have  sometimes  been  on  a  railway  train  when 
the  engine  was  detached  a  long  way  from  the  station  you 
were  approacliing  ?  " 

Note  2.  —  Several  distinct  questions  in  a  series  re- 
quire an  interrogation  point  after  each  question. 

Ex.  What  was  the  fate  of  Regulus?  of  Hannibal?  of 
Cleopatra?  of  Julius  Ciesar? 

What  was  the  fate  of  the  following  persons  :  — 
Regulus?     Hannibal?     Cleopatra?     Julius  Coesar? 

Rule  2.  Doubt. — To  express  doubt  as  to  the  accu- 
racy of  a  statement,  place  after  it  an  interrogation  point 
inclosed  in  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Ex.  In  the  year  1805 (?)  Irving  made  his  first  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic. 

RULES  FOR  THE  EXCLAMATION  POINT. 

Rule  1.  Expressions  of  Emotion.  —  The  exclama- 
tion point  should  be  used  after  every  expression  of 
strong  emotion. 


PUNCTUATION.  241 

Ex.  "  He  is  dead,  the  sweet  musician ! 

He  the  sweetest  of  all  singers  ! 
He  has  gone  from  us  forever, 
He  has  moved  a  little  nearer 
To  the  Master  of  all  music, 
To  the  Master  of  all  singing  !  " 

Note  1.  —  To  express  increasing  intensity  of  emotion, 
the  double  and  triple  marks  of  exclamation  are  some- 
times used. 

Ex.  And  in  his  ears  will  ring  forever  the  awful  words, 
Too  late  !    Too  late  !  !    Too  late  ! ! ! 

Rule  2.  Doubt  or  Sarcasm.  —  The  exclamation 
point  may  be  used  to  indicate  that  the  expression  is 
sarcastic,  or  that  the  writer  has  some  doubt  about  the 
truth  of  the  statement. 

Ex.  You  set  us  a  good  example,  your  own  temper  is  so 
angelic ! 

That  man  a  poet !     He  looks  more  like  a  cowboy. 

Rule  3.  Interjections.  —  The  exclamation  point 
should  be  used  after  interjections  and  after  other  words 
which  are  used  as  interjections.  "    ' 

Ex.    "  Alas  !  "  said  he  with  a  sigh. 

"Peace!  Peace!  Why  dost  thou  question  God's  provi- 
dence ?  " 

Note  1.  —  The  interjection  0  should  be  used  with  a 
noun  of  address  and  should  not  be  immediately  followed 
by  the  exclamation  point.  By  the  most  careful  writers. 
Oh  is  not  used  with  words  of  address ;  and  it  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  the  exclamation  point,  unless  the 
emotion  continues  throughout  the  sentence. 


242  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Ex.    "  Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State  !  " 

"  Oh  !  there  is  something  iu  that  voice  that  reaches 

The  innermost  recesses  of  my  spirit." 
"  Oh,  what  a  cruel  fate  is  mine  !  " 

Note  2.  —  Authorities  differ  as  to  whether  Oh  or  0 
should  be  used  to  express  a  wish.  It  seems  better  to 
use  0  for  this  purpose ;  and  Oh  merely  as  an  exclama- 
tion of  surprise,  pain,  or  grief. 

Ex.    "  O  that  those  lips  had  language !  " 
Oh  !  how  you  frightened  me  ! 

Note  3. — If  an  interjection  is  repeated,  a  comma  may 
be  used  to  separate  the  words,  and  the  exclamation  point 
may  be  used  only  at  the  end,  if  it  is  not  the  writer's 
intention  to  make  each  of  the  words  em23hatic. 

Ex.  Ha,  ha,  ha  !  That's  the  best  joke  I  have  heard  this 
many  a  day  ! 

Aha  !  aha  !     I've  caught  you  this  time  !     [Emphasis.] 

EXEEOISE. 

1.  "  Ah  me  "  he  exclaims  at  another  time  "  what  strains 
of  unwritten  verse  pulsate  through  my  soul  when  I  open 
a  certain  closet  in  the  ancient  house  where  I  was  born." 

2.  Tlien  comes  the  sudden  rain-storm  and  the  birds  fly 
to  and  fro  and  shriek.  Where  do  they  hide  themselves 
in  such  storms  at  what  firesides  dry  their  feathery  cloaks 

3.  "Tiu-n  out  you  lobsterbacks "  one  would  say  "Crowd 
them  off  the  sidewalks"  another  would  cry  "A  redcoat 
has  no  right  in  Boston  streets  " 

' .    Make  haste  Prince  Jason  For  your  life  make  haste 

5.    I  hear  a  voice  that  cries  "  Alas  alas 
Whatever  hath  been  written  shall  remain 


PUNCTUATION.  243 

Nor  be  erased  nor  written  o'er  again 

The  unwritten  only  still  belongs  to  thee 

Take  heed  and  ponder  well  what  that  shall  be  " 

6.  And  hop'st  thou  hence  unscathed  to  go 
No  by  St  Bride  of  Bothwell  no 

7.  Take  cold  indeed  He  doesn't  look  like  one  of  tlie  sort 
to  take  cold  Besides  he'd  better  have  taken  cold  than  to 
have  taken  our  umbrella 

8.  O  North  and  South 
Its  victims  both 
Can  ye  not  cry 

"  Let  slavery  die" 

And  union  find  in  freedom 

9.  Throned  in  thine  ebon  chair  O  Poet  may 
We  bring  thy  brow  a  wreath 

10.    "  Stay  at  home  pretty  bees  fly  not  hence 
Mistress  Mary  is  dead  and  gone  " 

How  like  Wordsworth  it  sounds  Who  can  read  this 
immortal  little  poem  without  tears  springing  to  his  eyes 

RULES   FOR   THE   DASH. 

Rule  1.  Abrupt  Chang-es. —  The  dash  should  be 
used  to  mark  sudden  changes  in  sentiment  and  in 
construction. 

Ex.    She  never  raised  her  voice  in  wrath  — 
She  never  banged  her  hair  ! 
Have  you  ever  seen  —  but  of  course  you  never  have  ! 

Rule    2.    Rhetorical    Pauses    and    Repetitions.  — 

The  dash  may  be  used  to  mark  pauses  and  repetitions 
which  are  intended  for  elocutionary  effect. 

Ex.   "  The  king  of  France,  with  twice  ten  thousand  men, 

Marched  up  the  hill,  and  then  —  marched  down  again." 


244  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

At  last  she  said,  between  her  sobs,  "I  —  want  —  to  see 
—  the  —  ele  —  elephant." 

"  If  I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an  Englishman,  while 
a  foreign  troop  were  landed  in  my  country,  I  would  never 
lav  down  mv  arms  —  never,  never,  never  !  " 

Rule  3.  Parenthetical  Expressions.  —  Dashes  may 
be  used  instead  of  commas  or  marks  of  parenthesis, 
before  and  after  exj^ressions  which  have  a  closer  con- 
nection with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  than  would  be 
indicated  by  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Ex.  "Her  little  bird  —  a  poor  slight  thing  the  pressure 
of  a  finger  would  have  crushed  —  was  stirring  nimbly  in  its 
cage  ;  and  the  strong  heart  of  its  child-mistress  was  mute 
and  motionless  forever." 

Note.  —  If  the  sentence,  written  without  the  paren- 
thetical expression,  would  require  a  comma  at  that 
point,  commas  should  be  inserted  before  the  dashes. 

Ex.  "  The  different  portions  are  supposed  to  be  related 
by  five  persons,  —  a  lawyer,  a  clergyman,  a  merchant  and 
his  daughter,  and  the  poet,  —  who  are  all  sight-seeing  in  the 
"White  Mountains." 

Rule  4.  Dependent  Expressions.  —  A  series  of 
phrases  or  clauses  depending  upon  a  concluding  clause 
should  be  separated  from  it  by  a  comma  and  a  dash. 
An  example  is  given  under  Rule  3  for  the  Semicolon. 

Rule  5.  Detached  Expressions.  —  Expressions  com- 
ing at  the  end  of  an  apparently  completed  sentence  but 
referring  back  to  some  part  of  the  sentence  should  be 
preceded  by  a  dash. 


PUNCTUATION.  246 

Ex.  "Auon  the  bells  ceased,  and  the  woods,  and  the 
clouds,  and  the  whole  village,  and  the  very  air  itself  seemed 
to  pray  —  so  silent  was  it  everywhere." 

Rule  O.  Omissions.  —  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  the 
omission  of  letters  and  figures. 

Ex.  Mrs.  H d,  formerly  Miss  A r  of  B Street, 

was  then  called  the  belle  of  the  city. 

Hawthorne  spent  the  winter  of  1851-52  at  West  Newton, 
near  Boston. 

See  Matt.  x.  4-7. 

EXERCISE. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rules  for  all 
the  points  which  you  insert. 

1.  But  the  folk-lore  of  the  early  days  where  is  it 

2.  Several  of  our  most  famous  authors  studied  law 
Irving  Bryant  Longfellow  Holmes  and  Lowell. 

3.  Our  hearts  our  hopes  our  prayers  our  tears 
Our  faith  triumphant  o'er  our  fears 

Are  all  with  thee  are  all  with  thee. 

4.  Approaching  the  head  of  the  bed  where  my  poor 
young  companion  with  throat  uncovered  was  lying  with 
one  hand  the  monster  grasped  his  knife  and  with  the 
other  ah  cousin  with  the  other  he  seized  a  ham. 

o.    Good  people  all  with  one  accord 
Lament  for  Madam  Blaize 
Who  never  wanted  a  good  word 
From  those  who  spoke  her  praise. 

6.  The  Hermit  of  Amesbury  the  Wood-thrush  of  Essex 
the  Martial  Quaker  the  Poet  of  Freedom  the  Poet  of 
the  Moral  Sentiment  such  are  some  of  the  titles  be- 
stowed upon  Whittier  by  his  admirers. 


246  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

7.  Statues  paintings  churches  poems  are  but  shadows  of 
himself  shadows  in  marble  colors  stone  words. 

8.  Hawthorne's  complaints  about  his  pens  are  really 
very  amusing  to  those  people  and  their  name  is  legion 
who  have  had  a  like  difficulty  in  pleasing  themselves. 

9.  I  awoke  from  this  dream  of  horror  and  found  that  I 
was  grasping  the  bedpost. 

10.  Take  the  poets  we  proclaim  as  greater  than  Long- 
fellow Browning  for  instance  or  Emerson  and  how 
often  they  fail  to  express  their  thoughts  so  that  anybody 
can  enjoy  them  without  a  course  of  lessons  from  an  ex- 
perienced professor. 

RULES   FOR   QUOTATION  MARKS. 

Rule  1.  Direct  Quotations. — Every  direct  quota- 
tion  should  be  inclosed  in  quotation  marks. 

Ex.  "I  would  send  such  a  man,"  said  he,  "  in  quest  of 
the  Golden  Fleece."     [Direct.] 

The  king  replied  that  he  would  send  such  a  man  in  quest 
of  the  Golden  Fleece.      [Indirect,] 

Note  1.  —  If  the  quotation  is  somewhat  altered  in 
form,  it  may  be  inclosed  in  single  quotation  marks. 

Ex.  May  we  ever  hear  '  the  voice  from  the  sky  like  a 
falling  star  —  Excelsior  ! ' 

Note  2.  —  A  quotation  consisting  of  several  para- 
graphs requires  the  inverted  commas  at  the  beginning 
of  each  paragraph,  but  the  apostrophes  at  tlie  end  of  the 
last  one  only. 

Rule  2.  Included  Quotations.  —  A  quotation  which 
is  included  within  another  should  be  inclosed  by  the 
single  quotation  marks. 


PUNCTUATION.  247 

Ex.  "  On  one  occasion,"  says  Whittier,  "  I  was  told  that 
a  foreigner  had  applied  to  my  mother  for  lodging.  '  What 
if  a  son  of  mine  was  in  a  strange  land?'  she  said  to  her- 
self." 

Rule  3.  Quoted  Titles.  —  Titles  of  books,  essays, 
etc.,  should  be  inclosed  by  quotation  marks  or  else 
printed  in  Italics.  This  rule  applies  to  quoted  words 
and  phrases. 

Ex.  "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables"  was  warmly 
welcomed,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

There  is  no  possible  solution  to  the  dark  enigma  but  the 
^ne  word —  "  Providence." 

EXEEOISE. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  explain  your  use 
of  the  quotation  marks. 

1 .  Pooh  cried  Uncle  John  impatiently  let  us  have  some 
music 

2.  Had  he  said  the  captain  black  whiskers  and  a  red  coat 
No  answered  Anne  with  a  sigh  he  had  red  whiskers  and 
a  black  coat 

3.  A  knot  can  choke  a  felon  into  clay 

A  not  will  save  him  spelt  without  the  k 

4.  Did  you  ever  tell  him  what  I  said  Johnny  Ignorance 
is  bliss  and  all  the  rest  of  that  nonsense 

5.  After  the  appearance  of  Longfellow's  poem  "Weari- 
ness Hawthorne  wrote  in  a  letter  to  a  friend  I  too  am 
weary  and  look  forward  to  the  Wayside  Inn. 

6.  The  Essex  minstrel  has  written  quite  a  number  of 
childrens  poems  such  as  The  Robin  Red  Riding  Hood 
and  King  Solomon  and  the  Ants 


248  LESSONS  iisr  ekglish. 

7.  Come  to  Concord  wrote  Ellery  Chauning  to  Hawthorne 
once  upon  a  time  Emerson  is  awaj-  and  nobody  here  to 
bore  you. 

8.  Bryant's  biographer  says  The  aged  poet  wrote  to  a 
friend  Is  there  a  penny-post  do  you  think  in  the  world 
to  come  Do  people  there  write  for  autographs  to  those 
who  have  gained  a  little  notoriety  Do  women  there  send 
letters  asking  for  money 

9.  The  word  buxom  formerly  meant  obedient  How  odd 
the  commandment  in  its  old  form  sounds  to  our  modern 
ears  Children  be  buxom  to  your  parents 

10.  A  school  teacher  tells  the  following  story  To  tlie  ques- 
tion who  was  Esau  a  boy  wrote  this  remarkable  answer 
Esau  wrote  a  famous  book  of  fables  aud  he  sold  tlie 
copyright  of  them  for  a  bottle  of  potasli. 

THE  MARKS   OF   PARENTHESIS. 

Rule.  —  The  marks  of  parenthesis  should  inclose  ex- 
pressions which  have  even  less  connection  with  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  than  would  be  indicated  by  the  use  of 
dashes  or  commas 

Ex.  "Phoebus  (for  this  was  the  very  person  whom  they 
were  seeking)  had  a  lyre  in  his  hands,  and  was  making  its 
chords  tremble  with  sweet  music." 

Note  1.  —  In  reports  of  speeches,  the  marks  of  paren- 
thesis are  used  to  inclose  the  name  of  a  person  who  has 
been  referred  to ;  also  to  inclose  exclamations  of  approval 
or  disapproval  on  the  part  of  the  audience. 

Ex.  "  The  honorable  gentleman  (Mr.  Hoar)  has  referred 
to  my  war  record  (hear,  hear)." 


PUNCTUATION.  249 

Note  2.  —  If  some  mark  of  punctuation  —  for  ex- 
ample, a  comma  —  would  be  required  if  there  were 
no  parenthesis,  the  same  mark  should  be  used  in  addi- 
tion to  the  marks  of  parenthesis.  If  the  parenthetical 
expression  is  exclamatory  or  interrogative,  the  comma 
should  be  placed  before  the  first  curve ;  and  either  the 
exclamation  point  or  the  interrogation  point,  before  the 
second  curve.  Otherwise,  the  comma  should  be  placed 
after  the  last  mark  of  parenthesis. 

Ex.  "Once,  to  be  sure  (as  was  recorded  on  an  obelisk, 
three  feet  high,  erected  on  the  place  of  the  catastrophe), 
Antaeus  sat  down  upon  about  five  thousand  Pygmies,  who 
were  assembled  at  a  military  review." 

"  First  flinging  his  crown  and  sceptre  into  the  sea,  (useless 
baubles  that  they  were  to  him  now  !)  King  ^Egeus  merely 
stepped  forward  and  fell  headlong  over  the  cliff." 

THE  BRACKETS. 

Rule. — The  brackets  should  be  used  to  inclose  words 
or  phrases  which  are  entirely  independent  of  the  rest  of 
the  sentence.  They  are  usually  comments,  queries, 
corrections,  criticisms,  or  directions,  inserted  by  some 
other  person  than  the  original  writer  or  speaker. 

Ex.  "  New  England  has  more  weather  to  the  square  inch 
than  any  other  country  on  the  globe."     [Laughter.] 

"Governor  Winthrop  tells  us  of  visiting  Agawam,  and 
spending  the  Sabbath  with  them  [whom?],  as  they  were  with- 
out a  minister.," 

Each  received  one  in  their  [his]  turn. 

[Enter  the  Fairies.]    O  Queen,  we  salute  thee! 


'250  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

OTHER  MARKS  OF  PUNCTUATION. 

The  Apostrophe.  —  The  apostrophe  is  the  sign  of 
the  possessive  case,  and  it  also  denotes  the  intentional 
omission  of  a  letter  or  letters. 

Ex.    The  moon's  calm  beams  shoue  o'er  the  earth. 

The  Caret.  —  The  unintentional  omission  of  a  word 

or  phrase  should  be  marked  by  a  caret. 

living 
Ex.    "  The  true  glory  of  a  nation  is  in  the  y^  temple   of 

a  loyal,  industrious,  and  upright  people." 

The  Hyphen. —  The  hyphen  is  used  to  separate  the 
elements  of  a  compound  word  and  to  divide  a  word  into 
syllables. 

Ex.    Co-op-e-ra-tion  ;  long-suffering. 

EXEEOISE. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  give  rules  for  the 
brackets  and  marks  of  parenthesis  :  — 

1.  Of  the  old  garden  surrounding  the  house  Holmes  has 
written  eloquently  and  one  can  almost  see  it  for  himself 
with  its  lilac  bushes  its  pear  trees  its  peaches  for  they 
raised  peaches  in  New  England  in  those  days  its  lovely 
nectarines  and  white  grapes. 

2.  Its  the  las  time  thet  I  shell  eer  address  ye 

But  you  11  soon  find  some  new  tormentor  bless  ye     Tu- 
multuous applause  and  cries  of  Go  on  Dont  stop 

3.  Her  mind  was  thronged  with  deliglitful  thoug-hts  till 
sleep  stole  on  and  transformed  them  to  visions  like  the 
breath  of  winter  \>\\i  what  a  cold  comparison  working 
fantastic  tracery  upon  a  window. 


PUNCTUATION.  251 

4.  This  life  has  joys  for  you  and  I  nie 
aud  joys  that  riches  neer  could  buy. 

5.  Mr.  Whittier  said  My  acquaintance  with  him  Garrison 
commenced  in  boyhood. 

6.  Thou  pretty  opening  rose 

Go  to  your  mother  child  and  wipe  j-our  nose 
Balmy  and  breathing  music  like  the  south 
He  really  brings  my  heart  into  my  mouth. 

7.  In  one  of  the  queerest  corners  of  the  town  Marble- 
head  there  stands  a  house  as  modest  as  the  Lee  house 
was  magnificent. 

8.  The  dealers  sit  cross  legged  in  their  little  shelf  like 
shops. 

9.  The  gentle  aud  innocent  creature  for  who  could  pos- 
sibly doubt  that  he  was  so  pranced  round  among  the 
children  as  sportively  as  a  kitten. 

10.  On  rising  Doctor  Holmes  held  up  a  sheet  of  paper 
and  said  You  see  before  you  referring  to  the  paper  all 
that  you  have  to  fear  or  hope. 

RULES   FOR   CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

Rule   1.    First    Word    of    a    Sentence.  —  The    first 
word  of  every  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capitaL 

Kule  2.    Lines  of  Poetry.  —  The  first  word  of  every 
line  of  poetry  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  3.    Direct    Quotations.  —  The    first    word    of 
every  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  4.    Direct  Questions.  —  The  first  word  of  every 
direct  question  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex.    Ask  3'ourself  this    question :    Are  you   making   the 
most  of  your  time  and  talents  ? 


262  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Rule  5.  I  and  O.  —  The  words  /  and  0  should 
always  be  capitals. 

Rule  6.  Proper  Nouns.  —  Every  proper  noun  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Rule   7.    Words    derived    from    Proper    Nouns.  — 

Words  derived  from  proper  nouns  should  begin  with 
capitals,  unless,  by  long  usage,  they  have  lost  all  associ 
ation  with  the  nouns  from  which  they  are  derived. 

Ex.  Christian  from  Christ;  but  currant  from  Corinth; 
Spanish,  Mohammedan,  to  Romanize. 

Rule  8.  Street,  River,  etc.  —  The  words  street,  rive?', 
mountain,  etc.,  should  begin  with  capitals  when  they 
are  used  in  connection  with  proper  names. 

Ex.    Chapel  Street ;  the  Mississippi  River  ;  Lake  Whitney. 

Rule  9.    North,    South,    East,    and    West.  —  The 

words  North,  South,  East,  and  West  should  begin  with 
capitals  whenever  they  refer  to  parts  of  the  country, 
and  not  simply  to  points  of  the  compass. 

Ex.  They  have  a  daughter  iu  New  York  and  a  son  living 
in  the  West. 

Rule  10.  Days,  Months,  and  Seasons.  —  Names  of 
the  days  of  the  week  and  the  months  of  the  year,  but 
not  the  seasons,  should  begin  with  capitals. 

Rule   11.    Words    denoting-    Family    Relations. — 

Words  denoting  family  relations,  such  us  father,  another, 
uncle,  etc.,  should  be  regarded  as  proper  nouns  and 
written  with  a  capital  letter  when  they  are  used  with 
the  proper  name  of  the  person  or  without  a  possessive 
pronoun. 


PUNCTUATION.  253 

Ex.  I  have  Iiad  a  letter  from  Mother ;  or,  I  have  had  a 
letter  from  my  mother. 

This  knife  was  a  present  from  Uncle  John ;  did  3'our 
uncle  give  you  one? 

Rule  12.  Official  Titles.  —  Titles  of  honor  or  office 
should  begin  with  a  capital  whenever  they  are  used  in 
a  formal  way,  or  in  connection  with  a  proper  name. 

Ex.    The  crown  was  once  worn  by  King  Henry  V. 
The  king  sighed  as  he  read  the  letter. 

Rule  13.  liiterary  Titles.  —  In  writing  the  titles  of 
books,  essays,  etc.,  every  noun,  pronoun,  verb,  adverb, 
and  adjective  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  14.  Names  of  the  Deity.  —  All  names  of  God 
and  expressions  which  may  be  regarded  as  titles  of  the 
Deity  should  begin  with  capitals.  So,  also,  a  pronoun 
referring  to  God  or  Christ  should  begin  with  a  capital 
whenever  the  meaning  might  otherwise  be  mistaken. 

Ex.    "  A  voice  saith,  '  What  is  that  to  thee? 
Be  true  thyself,  and  follow  Me  !'-" 

Rule  15.  The  Bihle. —  The  words  Bible,  Scriptures, 
etc.,  and  all  names  of  books  and  parts  of  the  Bible 
should  begin  with  capitals. 

Rule  16.  Epochs  and  Events.  —  Words  represent- 
ing important  events  in  history  and  epochs  of  time 
should  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex.    The  Revolution  ;  the  Middle  Ages. 

Rule  1 7.  Personification.  —  Names  of  personified 
objects  should  begin  with  capitals. 


254  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  the  following  story  with  correct  punctuation  :  — 

king  frederick  of  prussia  was  one  day  travelling  when 
he  came  to  a  village  where  he  was  to  stay  an  hour  or 
two  so  the  king  visited  the  school  after  a  time  he  turned 
to  the  teacher  and  said  he  would  like  to  ask  the  children 
a  few  questions  on  a  table  near  by  stood  a  large  dish  of 
oranges  the  king  took  up  one  of  the  oranges  and  said  to 
wliat  kingdom  does  this  belong  children  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom  replied  one  of  the  little  gii'ls  and  to  what  king- 
dom does  this  belong  said  he  as  he  took  from  his  pocket 
a  piece  of  gold  to  the  mineral  kingdom  she  answered 
and  to  what  kingdom  then  do  I  belong  my  child  he 
asked  thinking  of  course  she  would  answer  to  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  the  little  girl  did  not  know  what  answer 
to  make  she  feared  tliat  it  would  not  seem  right  to  say 
to  a  king  that  he  belonged  to  the  animal  kingdom  well 
said  the  king  can  you  not  answer  my  little  lady  the  kind 
words  and  geutle  look  of  the  king  gave  the  child  cour- 
age and  looking  up  into  his  face  she  replied  to  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  sir  the  king  deeply  moved  placed  his 
hand  upon  her  head  and  said  god  grant  that  I  may  be 
found  worthy  of  that  kingdom 

2.  Punctuate  the  following  in  two  ways,  expressing  very 

different  ideas  :  — 

Lord  palmerston  then  entered  on  his  head  a  white  hat 
upon  his  feet  large  but  well  polished  boots  upon  his 
brow  a  dark  cloud  in  his  hand  a  faithful  walking  stick 
in  his  eye  a  menacing  glare  saying  nothing. 

3.  Punctuate  the  following  anecdote  :  — 

Mr.  Longfellow  used  to  tell  the  following  incident  I 
was  once  riding  in  london  when  a  laborer  approached 


PUNCTUATION.  255 

the  carriage  and  asked  are  you  the  Avriter  of  the  psahu 
of  life  I  am  will  you  allow  me  to  shake  hands  with  you 
we  clasped  hands  warmly  the  carriage  passed  on  and  I 
saw  him  no  more  but  I  remember  that  as  one  of  the 
most  gratifying  compliments  I  ever  received  because  it 
was  so  sincere. 

4.  Punctuate  the  following  in  two  ways  :  one  to  represent  a 

very  bad  man ;  and  the  other,  a  very  good  man. 

He  is  an  old  man  and  experienced  in  vice  and  wicked- 
ness he  is  never  found  in  opposing  the  works  of  iniquity 
he  takes  delight  in  the  downfall  of  his  neighbors  he 
never  rejoices  in  the  prosperity  of  his  fellow-creatures 
he  is  always  ready  to  assist  in  destroying  the  peace  of 
society  he  takes  no  pleasure  in  serving  the  Lord  he  is 
uncommonly  diligent  in  sowing  discord  among  his 
friends  and  acquaintances  he  takes  no  pride  in  laboring 
to  promote  the  cause  of  christianitj'  he  has  not  been 
negligent  in  endeavoring  to  stigmatize  all  public  teach- 
ers he  makes  no  effort  to  subdue  his  evil  passions  he 
strives  hard  to  build  up  satans  kingdom  he  lends  no  aid 
to  the  support  of  the  gospel  among  the  heathen  he  con- 
tributes largely  to  the  devil  he  will  never  go  to  heaven 
he  must  go  where  he  will  receive  the  just  recompense  of 
reward. 

5.  Write  the  following  extract,  with  careful  attention  to 

punctuation  and  arrangement. 

As  bess  ran  she  was  suddenly  stopped  at  the  gate  by 
the  sight  of  a  carriage  which  had  just  driven  up  and  out 
of  which  now  stepped  aunt  maria  and  aunt  maria's  hus- 
band uncle  daniel  these  were  the  very  grimmest  and 
grandest  of  all  the  relations  for  one  awful  moment  bess 
stood  stunned  then  her  anxiety  for  torn  overcame  every 
other  consideration   and  before  aunt  maria  could  say 


256  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

how  do  you  do  elizabeth  she  caught  her  uncle  by  his 
august  coat  tail  aud  in  a  piteous  vaice  besought  him  to 
come  and  pull  on  the  rope  pull  on  a  rope  elizabeth  said 
uncle  daniel  who  was  a  very  slow  man  why  should  I  pull 
on  a  rope  my  dear  oh  come  quick  hurry  faster  toms 
down  in  the  well  cried  bess  tom  down  a  well  how  did  he 
get  there  he  went  down  for  the  teapot  sobbed  bess  the 
silver  teapot  and  we  cant  pull  him  up  again  and  hes 
cramped  with  cold  oh  do  hurry  uncle  daniel  leisurely 
looked  down  at  tom  then  he  slowly  took  off  his  coat  and 
as  slowly  carried  it  into  the  house  stopped  to  give  an 
order  to  his  coachman  came  with  measured  tread  to  the 
three  frightened  children  then  took  hold  of  the  rope 
gave  a  long  strong  calm  pull  and  in  an  instant  tom  drip- 
ping with  coolness  arose  from  the  well. 


REFERENCES. 

Hand  Book  of  Punctuation.     Turner. 
Treatise  on  Punctuation.     Wilson. 
Hand  Book  of  Punctuation.     Bigelow. 
Essentials  of  English.     Welsh. 
Practical  Rhetoric.     Clark. 


LETTER-WRITING.  257 


CHAPTER   IX. 


LETTER  -WRITING. 


'I'o  THE  Teacher  :  — 

It  is  recoinniended  that  Letter- Writing  be  taken  up  very  early 
in  the  course  and  that  frequent  practice  be  given  in  connection 
with  other  Ivinds of  composition-writing.  The  "Five  Minute  Exer- 
cises "  will  furnish  suggestions  for  making  the  practice  both  pleas- 
ing and  profitable. 

In  the  small  space  which  can  here  be  devoted  to  the  subject,  it 
is  impossible  to  quote  examples.  The  teacher  should  read  to  the 
class  good  specimens  of  the  various  kinds  of  correspondence,  select- 
ing them,  to  a  great  extent,  from  the  authors  studied  in  class. 
Encourage  pupils  to  express  themselves  in  an  easy,  natural  style. 
Read  to  them  some  of  Thackeray's  letters  and  show  them  the 
illustrations.  By  all  means,  let  them  read  some  of  the  famous 
"  William  Henry  Letters,"  by  Mrs.  Diaz. 

Importance     of    Practice     in     Letter -Writing".  — 

Letter-Writing  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  division 
of  composition  work,  since  it  is  the  most  practical. 
After  you  leave  school,  you  may  never  be  called  upon 
to  write  a  formal  essay  or  a  fictitious  story  ;  but  all 
through  life  there  will  be  occasions  for  writing  letters 
of  business  and  of  friendship.  It  is,  therefore,  very 
important  that  you  should  know  what  are  the  requisites 
of  a  good  letter.  We  shall  consider  two  divisions  of 
the  subject :  — 

1.  The  Form  of  a  Letter. 

2.  The  Essential  Qualities. 


258  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


FORM   OF  A   LETTER. 

Parts  of  a  Letter.  —  In  considering  the  form  of  a 
letter,  we  notice  first  the  parts  of  which  it  is  composed. 
They  are  as  follows  :  — 

I.    The  Heading.  |  ^-  ^^^°®- 

^  [2.  Date. 

II.    The  Introduction.         j  ^-  Address. 

(  2.  Salutation. 

III.  The  Body  of  the  Letter. 

IV.  The  Conchision.  |  ^-  Complimentary  Close. 

(  2.  Signature. 

TT     mi      o  •   ,•  I    1.  Name. 

V.    The  Superscription.      < 

'■  ^  12.  Place. 


The  Heading-.  —  The  Heading  may  occupy  only  a 
single  line  ;  but  if  the  name  of  the  place  be  given  in 
detail,  it  is  better  to  write  the  place  on  one  line,  and  the 
date  on  the  line  below.  The  place  for  the  Heading  is 
on  the  first  line  or  two  of  the  page,  and  well  towards 
the  right-hand  edge.  On  a  sheet  of  commercial  note 
paper  the  first  line  is  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  top 
of  the  page.  If  you  use  unruled  paper,  leave  about 
the  same  space  above  your  heading.  In  business  letters 
and  in  any  letter  written  to  a  stranger,  you  should  be 
particular  to  give  not  only  the  name  of  the  city  or 
town  from  which  you  write,  but  also  the  street  and 
number,  if  it  be  a  city,  or  the  county,  if  it  be  a  village. 
If  you  prefer  to  do  so,  you  may  omit  the  details  from 
this  part  of  the  letter  and  give  them  at  the  close,  fol- 
lowing the  signature. 


LETTER-W'RITING.  259 

Examples  of  Headings.  —  In  the  following  exam- 
ples, pay  particular  attention  to  the  punctuation. 

1. 

8aat(m,  UUm..,  TJUj  20,  /88j. 
ht§^'}7vl)~b'b  21 ,  /886. 

3. 

dphil  6,  /88J. 

4. 

Jrav-.  16,  /886. 

The  Address. — In  writing  to  any  person  who  is  not 
an  intimate  friend,  you  should  place  at  the  beginning 
of  your  letter  his  name  and  address,  followed  by  such  a 
Salutation  as  Dear  Si)\  My  dear  Sir,  etc.  These  partic- 
ulars make  up  the  Introduction.  The  Address  should 
begin  on  the  line  below  the  date,  and  at  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  page,  about  half  an  inch  from  the  edge  of  the 
paper.  This  half-inch  maigin  at  the  left  should  be  kept 
on  every  page  of  the  letter. 

The  Address  may  consist  of  one,  two,  or  three  lines, 
according  to  circumstances.  In  writing  the  name  of  a 
business  firm,  we   do  not  use  the  plural   Misters,  but 


260  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

write  instead  Messrs.,  which  is  an  abbreviation  of  Mes- 
sieurs, the  plural  of  the  French  Monsieur.  In  formal 
letters  which  are  not  of  a  strictly  business  character, 
the  Address  is  often  placed  at  the  close  of  the  letter,  in 
two  lines,  written  below  the  Signature  and  at  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  page.  In  familiar  letters,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  omit  altogether  the  formal  Address. 

The  Salutation.  —  The  form  of  the  Salutation  will, 
of  course,  vary  according  to  your  relations  with  your 
correspondent.  Dear  Sir,  the  Salutation  commonly 
used  in  business  letters,  is  understood  to  be  an  expres- 
sion of  respect  rather  than  of  affection.  Remember  that 
Dear  Madam  is  the  corresponding  form  to  use  in  address- 
ing a  lady  who  is  a  stranger  to  you.  The  French 
Madame  is  applied  only  to  a  married  woman,  but  it  is 
proper  to  address  a  lady  as  Dear  Madam,  whether  her 
title  be  Mrs.  or  Miss.  In  writing  to  a  business  firm, 
your  Salutation  may  be  Dear  Sirs  or  Gentlemen.  If 
you  wish  to  address  an  association  or  committee  com- 
posed of  women,  the  projDcr  Salutation  is  Ladies.  In 
writing  the  Salutation,  begin  with  a  capital  the  first 
word  and  the  word  which  stands  in  place  of  the  person's 
name.  For  example,  Dear  Friend,  My  dear  Friend, 
My  own  precious  Mother,  My  dear  Uncle  John.  It  was 
formerly  the  custom  to  begin  each  word  of  the  Saluta- 
tion with  a  capital  letter,  but  this  is  not  now  authorized 
by  the  best  usage.  The  place  for  the  Salutation  is  one 
of  the  points  concerning  which  letter-writers  may,  to 
some  extent,  use  their  own  taste.  If  there  is  no  Address, 
the  Salutation  begins  at  the  marginal  line  and  on  the 
line  below  the  date.     If  the  Address  is  given,  the  Salu- 


LETTKIt -WRITING,  261 

tatioii  is  commonly  placed  on  the  line  below  and  a  little 
to  the  right  of  the  point  where  the  last  line  of  the 
Address  begins.  Some  writers  invariably  place  the  Sal- 
utation at  the  marginal  line  and  begin  the  body  of  the 
letter  upon  the  same  line,  using  a  dash  to  break  the 
connection.  It  is  well  to  follow  this  usage  when  the 
Address  contains  more  than  two  lines.  In  punctua- 
tion, also,  usage  varies.  You  will  be  safe,  however, 
in  observing  the  same  distinction  that  is  made  before 
long  and  short  quotations.  If  you  are  writing  a  brief 
note,  place  a  comma  after  the  Salutation ;  if  a  long 
letter,  use  instead  a  colon.  If  the  Body  of  the  letter 
begins  upon  the  same  line  with  the  Salutation,  the 
comma  or  the  colon  should  be  followed  by  a  dash. 

EXAMPLES   OF   INTRODUCTIONS. 

1.  Note. 

J'yi  v^<}Lif  to  liowb  'ru)t&,  tt&. 

2.  Note. 


262  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

3.  Letter. 

-2/  dbdV  SiM/nxi  : 


iTij  tfuyi^aktM.  oftd^v,  ^@,. 


4.  Letter. 

Simmy  y^  &xy.,  S^VyM/L^/i&iM., 

hta^iy  ^iA/9.. —  WM  ycyw  aMyla&  ryvt  Im,  tt&. 

The  Body  of  a  Letter.  —  As  is  shown  in  the  pre- 
ceding examples,  the  main  part  of  the  letter  may  begin 
either  on  the  same  line  with  the  Salutation  or  on  the 
line  below,  under  the  point  where  the  Salutation  ends. 
Do  not  begin  the  Body  of  a  letter  with  "  I,"  if  you  can 
help  it.  While  it  is  not  a  violation  of  rule,  it  is  not  in 
the  best  taste  to  make  yourself  so  conspicuous.  You 
can  probably  change  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence  so 
as  to  begin  with  some  other  Avord.  Remember  that  the 
frequent  repetition  of  "  I "  makes  the  writer  aj)pear  to 
have  an  exalted  idea  of  his  own  importance.  In  writing 
a  letter,  observe  the  same  directions  about  margins  and 
paragraphs  as  are  given  among  the  rules  for  composi- 
tion-writing. Do  not  close  a  letter  abruptly.  The  last 
paragraph  should  be  a  sort  of  prelude  to  the  Conclusion. 

The  Complimentary  Close. — The  Conclusion  is  made 
up  of  two  parts,  —  the  Complimentary  Close  and  the 
Signature.     By  the  Complimentary  Close,  we  mean  the 


LETTER-WRITING.  263 

concluding  words  of  respect  or  affection,  such  as  /S'm- 
cerely  t/ours,  Very  truly  yours,  Respectfully  yours.  Your 
sincere  friend,  Your  loviny  father. 

Only  the  first  word  should  begin  with  a  capital.  The 
place  for  the  Complimentary  Close  is  on  the  line  below 
the  concluding  words  in  tlie  main  part  of  the  letter. 
A  comma  should  always  be  placed  after  the  Compli- 
mentary Close. 

The  Signature.  —  The  place  for  the  Signature  is  on 
the  line  below  the  Complimentary  Close.  You  should 
sign  your  name  in  full,  in  preference  to  writing  only 
your  initials  or  some  pet  name.  If  you  are  writing  to  a 
stranger,  be  careful  to  sign  your  name  in  such  a  way 
that  he  will  understand  how  to  address  you  in  reply. 
Business  men  would  be  spared  many  embarrassments 
and  vexatious  delays  if  people  were  more  considerate 
about  signatures.  Suppose  that  a  firm  doing  a  large 
business  receive  a  letter  of  inquiry  signed  J.  M.  Hall, 
If  the  person  is  unknown  to  them,  they  may  have  to 
guess  from  the  penmanship  whether  the  writer  is  a  man 
or  a  woman.  If  the  latter,  they  cannot  tell  whether  the 
title  should  be  Miss  or  Mrs.  A  careful  letter-writer 
would  sign  the  name  so  that  there  would  be  no  embar- 
rassment.    Notice  carefully  the  different  forms:  — 

1-.    fornix  ?n.  /fall. 

2.    (TriaUeA)  famvEA.  TTl.  /fall. 

3.  {?nu^)  fuiici  m.  /-fall. 

4.  {mv^.)  fuiu  m.  /'fall. 


264  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Tni.Q..  d'-Xk^ov  €.  /'fall, 

The  first  is  understood  to  be  the  signature  of  a  man  ; 
the  second,  that  of  a  boy ;  the  third,  that  of  a  girl  or  an 
unmarried  woman;  the  fourth,  that  of  a  widow;  the 
fifth,  that  of  a  married  woman  whose  husband  is  livins-. 

In  the  Last  of  the  following  examples,  the  writer,  who 
has  a  Christian  name  that  may  belong  to  either  a  man 
or  a  woman,  is  thoughtful  enough  to  give  his  address, 
so  that  there  can  be  no  misunderstanding. 

EXAMPLES   OF    CONCLUSIOXS. 

&ti/i-a{>-e,tk  fC&tto-QCi  ' 
^  /lfs/}^^n^  If.  (^ka/Jii-riuim^. 

4.  c/  OAyu 

V&vu  i^eM^e^tuluu  uon^o'i^, 

(5v-&lYf^  ^.  Tyia^n^keAZ&v- 
THv.  (o.  2{^.  Tflcme^/i&aZ&v, 

Cvv-£AjfiU>ot,  Snata/ncL. 


LETTER -WRITING.  265 

Postscripts.  —  A  postscript  is  usually  an  admission 
of  the  writer's  carelessness.  It  has  been  said  that  the 
most  important  part  of  a  woman's  letter  is  always  found 
in  the  postscript !  Some  writers  are  not  content  with 
one,  but  tack  on  several  after-thoughts  in  this  easy 
fashion.  This  habit  is  a  bad  one.  The  postscript  is 
properly  used  when  you  wish  to  express  something 
which  is  foreign  to  the  subject  of  the  letter,  so  that  it 
would  seem  out  of  keeping  with  the  rest  if  it  were 
inserted  in  the  main  part  of  the  communication. 

The  Superscription.  —  The  Superscription  includes 
the  particulars  which  you  write  upon  the  envelope.  It 
is  commonly  arranged  in  three  lines,  but  sometimes  in 
four.  The  name  should  be  written  on  an  imaginary 
line  drawn  across  the  middle  of  the  envelope.  Place 
it  so  that  there  will  be  about  as  much  space  at  the 
right  of  the  name  as  at  the  left,  unless  the  envelope  is 
very  long  in  proportion  to  the  width,  in  which  case  the 
greater  space  should  be  at  the  left.  Arrange  the  suc- 
cessive lines  so  that  the  initial'  letter  of  each  shall  be 
farther  to  the  right  than  that  of  the  preceding  line. 
Keep  uniform  spacing  between  the  lines.  Do  not  rule 
the  lines  with  a  pencil.  If  you  cannot  write  straight,  slip 
inside  the  envelope  a  card  ruled  with  heavy  black  lines 
to  serve  as  a  guide.  You  should  gradually  accustom 
yourself  to  do  without  help  of  this  kind.  As  a  matter 
of  convenience  to  post-office  clerks,  it  is  well  to  write 
the  street  and  number,  or  the  number  of  the  post-office 
box,  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner.  Write  the  Super- 
scription in  your  clearest  and  best  style.  Remember 
always  to  place  the  stamp  on  the  upper  right-hand 
corner  of  the  envelope. 


266 


LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 


EXAMPLES   OF   SUPERSCRIPTIONS. 


TViiA^  ^uiux^  RaatAja^, 

ri/f&w-  JLcyytcLon, 


LETTEi; -WRITING. 


267 


mx^.  fahv  'UK  /fitt, 


/OO  S'cvhk,  S'tcme.. 


Kindness  of  Jdr.  Harper. 


TVlv.   j^a-'vv&a'  ^.   Zl^/tvCviaie , 


S'vim,.  0^  /ifii^k 


lO-O-t 


€(ly 


Notes.  —  Notes  may  be  classified  as  formal  and  in- 
formal. Formal  notes  include  business  notes  and  social 
notes.  Informal  notes  are  simply  short  letters  of  friend- 
ship. Social  notes  are  such  as  pertain  to  the  etiquette 
of  social  life  and  include  polite  notes  of  invitation,  ac- 


268  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

ceptance,  regret,  condolence,  and  congratulation.  Such 
notes  should  be  written  in  the  third  person.  The  time 
and  place  of  writing  are  written  below  the  body  of  the 
note  and  at  the  left-hand  side.  The  da}^  of  the  week 
is  usually  mentioned,  and  the  year  omitted. 


SPECIMENS   OF   FORMAL   NOTES. 
1. 

IXMviAyyveA^' a^   eycyvn^iUMvu  cm   lAy&d/vi&Qxiadf   e^'\y&'yilAt<i,    at  a, 
lAXtc&  (jotkeAAmxj'  vn  kcyyw-v  at  (Ptole^Q^ov   cJ'ka'yyui^. 

286  S>u>^e^  ^t., 

Tflanclay,  j^Wn-f-  /3. 


froAAA^    Buyuyyv    tuyyyv    o^eAaat    at    tteAytn    a' elxMJo    tkiUL' 
'YyuyynAyyuj,  oauL  (yu  av-  axHyyia  cvu&aZlu  o6Xta&  kC^  'ryvatkeA^, 

/  67  Tn^.'&kAxjam,  (Ia>&.,  ^ouio/fh  L.  fSvcmyyv. 

TyicyyvcLoAdr  JyiaxmAAui. 

3. 

TVlv.    and   ?yiva'.    JJUt^atn    v&aveZ    tkat   a   ^h&utcnc^ 
e/yvaac^&rn&rit  li'-ilt  ^yb&v-emZ  tAeAAy  a^^&^itane&  at  THv^ 
c^i&e/nva/yv' Qy  kAyTicL  vyiv-ttatCarv  iov  JkiMjo^cLwu  &v-e/}ttm^. 


LETTEK-WKITING.  269 

4. 

^keltcyyv,   cvncC  6-&<^  heA^  to-  as^^&jat  tJit^  lvttt&  i&w€A}v- 
(>-'iayyi€^',  ^iz-CtA  Aa^  (y-^oZ  w-hoAe^  pyb  tk&  c/fcA-u-  lAbOAy. 

72^  /il<fktamJ.  ^t., 
fayrt.  /,  /886. 

ESSENTIAL  QUALITIES  OF   A  GOOD  LETTER. 

1.  Good  Taste.  —  Remember  that  paper  and  envel- 
opes may  be  "in  the  Litest  style"  and  yet  in  very  bad 
taste.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that,  as  a  rule,  persons  of 
refinement  pay  very  little  heed  to  the  changing  fashions 
in  stationery.  Never  choose  writing-paper  which  is 
highly  colored,  showily  decorated,  or  in  any  way  con- 
spicuous. If  you  wish  to  use  stationery  which  is 
always  in  good  taste,  select  heavy  paper,  either  plain 
white  or  of  a  delicate  pearl  or  cream  tint,  and  without 
ornament  of  any  kind.  Use  envelopes  to  match.  For 
"polite  correspondence,"  unruled  paper  is  preferable  to 
ruled.  If  you  cannot  write  straight  without  a  guide, 
place  under  the  page  a  sheet  of  paper  ruled  with  lines 
heavy  enough  to  show  through.  Practice  will  enable 
you  to  write  as  well  without  the  lines  as  with  them. 
For  business  letters,  the  cheaper  grades  of  ruled  white 
paper  may  be  used,  with  envelopes  to  fit  the  paper. 
Avoid  the  use  of  bright-colored  inks  and  fancy  varie- 
ties of  sealing-wax. 

2.  Ifeatness.  —  Remember  that  character  is  judged 
by  little  things.  Many  a  position  of  trust  and  honor 
has  been  lost  because  the  applicant's  letter  was  not 


270  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

neatly  written.  A  soiled,  blotted,  or  scribbled  letter 
indicates  that  the  writer  is  careless,  slovenly,  and  sel- 
fish; since  he  has  not  sufficient  regard  for  the  feelings 
of  his  correspondent  to  take  a  reasonable  amount  of 
time  and  pains  in  writing  the  letter.  Cultivate  a  neat 
and  clear  hand-writing,  without  flourishes  or  oddities  of 
any  kind.  If  you  make  mistakes,  or  if  accidents  occur, 
copy  and  re-copy,  if  necessary,  until  you  have  a  neat 
letter.  In  business  letters  especially,  write  as  plainly 
as  you  know  how  to  write.  A  business  man  cannot  be 
expected  to  spend  time  in  deciphering  hieroglyphics. 
Fold  your  letter  neatly,  with  the  first  page  inside. 

3.  Carefulness.  —  Be  thoughtful  about  the  arrange- 
ment, the  punctuation,  the  spelling,  and  the  grammar. 
Some  of  these  are,  in  themselves,  little  things,  but  neg- 
lect of  them  is  usually  interpreted  as  proof  of  the 
writer's  ignorance.  Habitual  disregard  of  these  "  little 
things "  will  stamp  you  as  an  illiterate  person.  By 
careful  attention  to  these  particulars,  in  every  letter 
which  you  write,  you  will  soon  acquire  a  fixed  habit  of 
writing  letters  in  proper  form. 

4.  Promptness.  —  Letters  in  general  should  be 
answered  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  received. 
Business  letters,  in  particular,  demand  immediate  at- 
tention. If  you  need  to  take  time  for  consideration, 
you  should  at  once  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  the 
letter  and  explain  the  cause  of  your  delay.  Otherwise, 
your  correspondent  may  assume  that  you  have  not 
received  the  letter,  and  may  be  put  to  the  trouble  of 
writing  you  another  on  the  same  subject.  If  you  have 
ever  waited  several  days  for  a  reply  which  you  expected 


LETTER-WIUTING.  271 

by  return  mail,  you  will  realize  how  important  it  is  that 
every  one  should  form  the  habit  of  prompt  attention 
to  his  correspondence.  In  these  matters,  the  best 
direction  that  can  be  given  is  to  obey  the  Golden  Rule. 

5.  Definiteiiess.  —  Doubtless  you  have  sometimes 
been  disappointed  by  receiving  a  letter  which  was  not, 
in  any  true  sense,  a  reply  to  the  one  which  you  had 
written,  it  may  have  been  weeks  before.  Your  corre- 
spondent had  evidently  laid  aside  or  destroyed  your 
letter  and  forgotten  everything  except  its  general  pur- 
port. As  a  consequence,  he  failed  to  answer  important 
questions  and  to  reply  to  urgent  suggestions  of  yours. 
Such  an  experience  should  teach  you  that  if  you  at- 
tempt to  answer  a  letter,  you  should  have  it  before  you 
and  read  it  carefully,  in  order  to  bring  yourself  into 
sympathy  with  the  writer.  Then  you  should  be  cer- 
tain that  your  letter  is  a  clear  and  definite  reply  to  the 
one  received. 

6.  Purpose.  —  In  business  letters  state  clearly  and 
concisely  your  purpose  in  writing.  Come  to  the  point 
as  soon  as  possible.  A  business  man  has  no  time  to 
waste  in  reading  long  preambles  and  explanations.  Be 
sure  to  state  all  the  particulars  which  your  correspond- 
ent needs  to  know,  and  to  arrange  them  in  the  form 
which  will  be  most  convenient  for  him.  In  letters  of 
friendship,  also,  let  your  purpose  be  apparent.  Have 
something  to  tell,  and  tell  it  so  that  your  letter  will  be 
worth  reading  and  worth  keeping.  Remember  that  a 
purpose  need  not  be  great  in  order  to  be  good.  A  let- 
ter that  is  written  with  no  purpose  would  better  have 
been  left  unwritten.     One  of  the   silliest   things  that 


272  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

you  can  do  is  to  open  a  correspondence  "  just  fur  fun." 
It  will  surely  result  in  waste  of  time,  and  perhaps  in 
something  worse. 

7.  Courtesy.  —  Cultivate,  in  writing  as  well  as  in 
speaking,  courteous  habits  of  expression.  A  letter  need 
not  be  brusque  or  in  any  way  suggestive  of  rudeness, 
simply  because  it  is  a  business  letter.  In  letters  of 
friendship,  remember  not  to  devote  the  entire  space  to 
chat  about  yourself  and  your  concerns.  Remember 
that  a  friendly  correspondence  is  a  conversation  on 
paper.  You  should  show  a  kindly  interest  in  whatever 
concerns  your  friend's  happiness.  Never  forget  to  make 
inquiries  such  as  you  would  expect  him  or  her  to  make 
concerning  your  own  occupations,  your  health,  your 
plans,  your  friends.  Try  to  put  yourself  in  the  place  of 
your  friend,  and  you  will  be  sure  to  say  nothing  that 
can  offend  him.  Do  not  fill  your  letter  with  apologies. 
They  are  dull  reading,  at  the  best,  and  you  ought  to 
have  something  better  worth  writing.  Answer  letters 
promptly,  and  you  will  not  need  to  apologize  for  delay. 
Write  with  care,  and  there  will  be  no  occasion  to  ask 
pardon  for  bad  writing  and  spelling. 

8.  Naturalness.  —  Avoid  anything  like  affectation. 
The  charm  of  a  good  letter  lies  in  its  naturalness.  The 
most  delightful  letters  are  those  which  show  most 
strongly  the  personality  of  the  writer  —  the  letters  of 
which  we  say,  "  Isn't  that  just  like  her?"  or,  "It  seems 
as  if  I  could  hear  him  tell  it."  Try  to  write  as  you 
would  talk  to  the  person  whom  you  are  addressing  on 
paper.  Write  in  simple  and  sincere  fashion  about  mat- 
ters in  which  you  are  both  interested.      Don't  try  to 


LETTER -WRITING.  273 

write  "  like  a  book " ;  don't  be  silly ;  don't  be  senti- 
mental. Avoid  the  use  of  hackneyed  phrases.  Fresh 
and  original  expressions,  used  instead  of  the  stiff,  formal 
phrases  with  which  most  letters  open  and  close,  have  a 
pleasing  effect.  If  they  are  in  themselves  graceful  and 
natural,  they  brighten  what  might  otherwise  be  a  very 
commonplace  letter.  Do  not  fall  into  the  habit  of  in- 
variably using  certain  forms.  Adapt  yourself  to  the 
varying  conditions  under  which  you  write,  the  person 
whom  you  are  addressing,  and  the  nature  of  the  letter. 

9.  Caution.  —  Remember  that  while  the  "idle  words  " 
which  you  speak  may  soon  be  forgotten,  those  which 
you  write  may  some  time  appear  as  evidence  against 
you.  Letters  have  frequently  proved  to  be  very  dan- 
gerous witnesses.  The  expression  of  your  thought  "in 
black  and  white  "  may,  therefore,  be  a  serious  matter. 
For  this  reason,  you  should  use  caution  in  writing  let- 
ters. Never  send  a  letter  without  first  reading  it  care- 
fully and  asking  yourself  whether  you  would  be  willing 
to  have  the  letter  preserved  and  perhaps  read  by  other 
eyes  than  those  for  which  it  was  intended.  Do  not,  on 
the  ground  of  caution,  ask  your  correspondent  to  destroy 
your  letter.  Such  a  request  is  commonly  equivalent  to 
a  confession  that  3^ou  are  ashamed  of  its  contents. 
Never  write  a  letter  which  you  would  rather  not  have 
your  father  and  mother  read. 

MISCELLANEOUS  HINTS. 

1.  In  writing  from  large  cities  like  New  York,  Boston, 
Chicago,  and  Philadelphia,  it  is  unnecessary  to  insert  the 
name  of  the  state  in  the  Heading  of  the  letter.  Remem- 
ber never  to  omit  the  name  of  the  state  from  the  Super- 
scription. 


274  LESsoJsrs  tn  English. 

2.  Avoid  the  use  of  the  adjective  dearest  in  the  Sahita- 
tion.  My  dearest  Friend,  loses  its  force  wheu  used  with- 
out discrimiuatiou  ;  and  3fy  dearest  Mother  is  absurd, 
since  it  seems  to  imply  that  you  have  several  mothers. 

3.  Do  not  call  a  letter  a  favor  or  say  that  it  came  to  hand. 

4.  In  letters  of  friendship,  do  not  use  such  abbreviations 
as  are  allowable  in  business  letters  ;  for  example,  rec'd, 
y'rs,  resp'ly.   Aff'  yours  is  not  a  ver}^  complimentary  close. 

5.  In  closing  a  letter  to  a  stranger,  you  ma}-  say  7  a?», 
but  not  7  remain.  The  latter  form  should  be  used  if 
you  have  had  previous  correspondence  with  him,  so  that 
there  is  at  least  a  slight  acquaintance. 

G.  Do  not  forget  to  date  your  notes.,  as  well  as  your 
letters.  The  date  on  what  seemed  at  the  time  of  writins: 
a  very  insignificant  note  may  make  the  communication 
interesting  and  valuable  at  some  future  time. 

7.  In  addressing  a  letter  to  a  married  woman,  do  not 
use  her  husband's  title.  Such  forms  of  address  as  Rev. 
Mrs.  Bigelow,  Mrs.  Dr.  Edwards,  and  Mrs.  President 
Cleveland  are  not  in  good  taste. 

8.  Do  not  use  the  sign  S  before  the  number  of  the  house 
or  of  the  post-office  box.  It  adds  nothing  to  tlie  plain- 
ness of  the  address. 

9.  Do  not  use  the  word  Addressed  in  the  Superscription 
of  a  note. 

10.  Do  not  use  titles  indiscriminately.  It  is  in  better  taste 
to  write  Mr.  before  the  name  than  to  use  the  title  Esq. 
at  the  end.  Mr.  John  Craddock,  Esq..,  is  almost  as  bad 
as  Dr.  Homer  Franklin,  M.D. 

11.  Do  not  use  postal  cards  for  anything  but  brief  busi- 
ness notifications.  They  are  not  intended  for  friendlv 
correspondence.  If  you  ever  make  use  of  them  in  writ- 
ing to  friends,  omit  the  usual  affectionate  forms  of 
Salutation  and  Conclusion. 


LETTER-WRITING.  275 

12.  Remember  that  it  is  not  regarded  as  polite  to  seal  a 
note  which  is  delivered  for  yon  by  a  friend. 

13.  In  a  short  letter  to  a  friend,  you  may  leave  the  second 
page  blank  and  finish  the  letter  on  the  third  page.  Do 
not,  however,  in  a  long  letter,  fill  the  third  page  and 
then  come  back  to  the  second. 

14.  Never  write  part  of  your  letter  in  vertical  lines.  Ec- 
centricities of  this  kind  are  always  in  bad  taste.  Do 
not  write  the  closing  words  of  your  letter  across  the  toj) 
of  the  first  page  or  in  the  margins. 

FIVE-MINUTE  EXEEOISES. 

1.  Write  a  note  to  a  relative  or  a  friend,  returning  thanks 

for  a  present  which  he  has  just  sent  to  you. 

2.  Write  a  letter,  renewing  your  subscription  to  "  The  Youth's 

Companion,"    "Wide   Awake,"  or  "St.   Nicholas." 
Tell  how  much  money  you  inclose  and  in  what  form. 

3.  Write  a  formal  note  in  the  name  of  your  mother,  invit- 

ing your  teacher  to  take  tea  at  your  home.     Name 
the  day  and  hour. 

4.  Write  an  informal  note  inviting  a  friend  to  take  a  ride 

with   )'ou.      Appoint   the    time    or   leave   it  to  your 
friend's  convenience. 

5.  Write  to  a  school  friend  who  has  met  with  an  accident 

or  an  affliction.     Express  your  sympathy  and  offer 

your  help. 
(;.    Write  an  informal  note  congratulating  a  friend  on  his 

having  won  a  prize  at  school. 
7.    Write   to   Messrs.    Houghton,   Mifflin   &  Co.,  Boston, 

Mass., •ordering  one  of  the  "Atlantic"  Portraits  for 

your  school-room. 
S.    Write  a  Christmas  grectino-  ro  ■in  nljsent  friend. 


276  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

9.  Order  from  James  Vick,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  flower  seeds, 
bulbs,  etc.,  making  a  list  of  the  varieties  which  you 
wish  to  purchase. 

10.  Write  to  a  bookseller,  ordering  a  list  of  books. 

11.  Write  a  note  requesting  an  interview.     State  clearly  the 

time  and  place. 

12.  Write  to  the  publisher  of  a  daily  or  weekly  newspaper, 

asking  him  to  discontinue  sending  the  paper  to  you. 

13.  Write  to  a  merchant  in  another  city,  asking  for  samples 

and  prices  of  goods. 

14.  Write  a  formal  note  inviting  an  acquaintance  to  a  social 

gathering  at  your  home. 

15.  Write  a  formal  note  accepting  an  invitation  to  dinner. 
IG.    Decline  an  invitation  to  accompany  a  friend  to  a  con- 
cert. 

17.  Write  an  informal  note  to  a  friend  in  a  distant  town, 

inviting  him  or  her  to  make  you  a  visit. 

18.  Write  an  informal  note  announcing  some  good  news. 

19.  Write  a  note  to  accompany  a  Christmas  gift  which  you 

send  to  a  friend. 

20.  Write  a  note  asking  a  person  to  contribute  money  to 

some  good  cause. 

21.  Write  to  some  noted  man,  asking  for  his  autograph. 

22.  Write   a   note    of    congratulation    to    some    American 

author,  on  his  birthday. 

23.  Write  a  note  asking  a  stranger  to  exchange  with  you 

stamps,  coins,  or  curiosities. 

24.  Write  a  note  commending  some  book  which  you  have 

recentl}'  read. 
2').    Apply  for  a  situation  as  clerk,  book-keeper,  or  teacher. 

State  briefly  your  qualifications.  * 

2G.    Write  an  informal  note  asking  a  school  friend  to  join 

you  in  an  excursion  of  some  kind. 


LETTER-WRITING.  277 

27.  Write    a   note   of  apology  to  your   teacher,   for  some 

tliouohtless  act. 

28.  "Write  a  note  from  a  fatlier  asking  the  teacher  to  excuse 

his  son's  absence  from  school. 
Note.  —  Do  not  icrite :  — 

Please   excuse  my   son's  absence  yesterday.      He  had  the 
toothache,  and  oblige  Mr.  Blank. 

29.  "Write  a  note  to  some  person  of  influence,  asking  for  a 

recommendation  with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  situation. 

30.  Write  a  note  to  a  business  man,  introducing  a  friend 

who  is  a  stranger  in  the  city. 

SUBJECTS  rOE  LETTERS. 

1 .  An  answer  to  an  advertisement  for  a  clerk  or  a  teacher. 

State  your  qualifications  and  experience,  and  the  sal- 
ary which  you  expect.     Give  references. 

2.  "Write  to  your  father,  supposing  him  to  be  away  from 

home.     Tell  him  all  the  home  news. 

3.  A  vacation  letter,  describing  the  place  where  you  are 

supposed  to  be  visiting  and  the  persons  whom  you 
meet.     Tell  what  you  do  and  think. 

4.  A  series  of   short  letters  from  a  boy  or  girl  away  at 

boarding   school.      These    may  take    the    form   of   a 
diary  for  one  week,  if  you  choose. 

5.  A  letter  purporting  to  be  from  a  grandfather  or  grand- 

mother to  their  grandchildren,  giving  some  account  of 
"the  days  when  I  was  j^oung." 
G.    Describe  a  real   or   an   imaginary    voyage    across    the 
Atlantic. 

7.  "Write  letters  from  various  interesting  places ;   for  ex- 

ample,   Rome,   Venice,  Athens,   .Jerusalem,   Alaska, 
Brazil,  Nineveh,  India,  China,  Mexico. 

8.  Give  an  account  of  a  visit  to  the  poet  Whittier, 

9.  Write  an  account  of  a  visit  to  -'Sunnyside"  and  the 

grave  of  Irving. 


-78  LESSONS  rx  English. 

10.  Write    about  a  visit  to   Cambridge,    to   the  homes  of 

Lowell  and  Longfellow,  the  site  of  Holmes's  birth- 
place, Harvard  College,  the  "Washington  Elm,  Long- 
fellow's grave,  etc. 

11.  A  visit  to  Concord,  to  the  haunts  of  Hawthorne,  Emer- 

son, and  Thoreau. 

12.  A  visit  to  the  White  Mountains  ;  the  Great  Stone  Face  ; 

the  Willey  House,  etc. 

13.  Write  a  letter  to  a  little  child,  in  such  language  as  a 

child  would  understand. 

14.  A  letter  purporting  to  be  from  a  dog  or  a  cat  to  his 

master  or  mistress. 

15.  A  letter  purporting  to  be  from  an  aged  doll. 

16.  A  confidential  letter  from  a  child  to  Santa  Claus. 

17.  A  reply  from  Santa  Claus. 

18.  A   letter   from   Ichabod   Crane,  giving  his  opinion  of 

Katrina's  treatment  of  him,  and  relating  his  adven- 
tures after  leaving  Sleepy  Hollow. 

19.  A  letter  sealed  in  a  bottle  washed  up  by  the  sea. 

20.  Write   to  the   School  Committee,   suggesting  improve- 

ments that  might  be  made  in  the  school  building. 

21.  A  letter  purporting  to  come  from  a  person  living  on 

another  planet. 

22.  A  letter  dropped  from  a  balloon. 

23.  Letters  found  in  strange  hiding-places  :  a  secret  drawer  ; 

an  old  trunk  ;  a  ginger  jar  ;  a  hollow  tree-trunk  ;  the 
lining  of  an  old  coat  or  dress. 

24.  Write  to  a  teacher,  explaining  the  method  of  stutTying 

English  which  is  used  in  your  school  and  telling  what 
3^ou  think  are  its  advantages. 

25.  Write  to  a  friend  announcing  the  death  of  Lonoffellow 

and  giving  an  account  of  the  funeral. 


COMPOSITION-WKITING.  279 


CHAPTER   X. 

COMPOSITION  -WRITING. 

To  THE  Teacher : — 

The  author's  intention  is  to  furnish  in  this  chapter  some  practi- 
cal hints  concerning  such  a  graded  course  in  Composition-Writing 
as  may  profitably  be  pursued  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
American  classics.  It  must  be  evident  that  only  an  outline  of  the 
plan  can  be  given  within  the  limits  of  a  single  chapter.  Each 
teacher  is  expected  to  adapt  the  woi'k  to  the  needs  of  her  individual 
pupils,  according  to  her  own  best  judgment. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  plan  calls  for  but  little  original  work 
during  the  first  year.  The  wisdom  of  this  arrangement  will  doubt- 
less be  apparent  to  all  who  have  had  any  experience  in  teaching 
pupils  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  simple  announce- 
ment that  a  composition  of  so  many  pages,  upon  a  particular  sub- 
ject, must  be  handed  in  upon  a  certain  day  in  the  near  future  is 
enough  to  cast  a  gloom  over  the  sunniest  school-room. 

If  we  inquire  why  this  is  so,  we  shall  probably  find  that  the 
chief  reasons  are  the  following :  — 

1.  The  pupils  have  few  ideas  of  their  own. 

2.  They  are  now  old  enough  to  realize  the  crudeness  of  their 
own  thoughts  as  compared  with  the  thoughts  of  their  elders.  As 
a  natural  consequence,  expression  is  less  spontaneous  with  them 
than  it  was  when  they  were  younger.  The  ideas  which  they  have 
seem  to  them  not  worth  presenting. 

3.  They  have  but  little  command  of  words.  The  narrow  limits 
of  their  vocabularies  prevent  their  making  a  wise  use  of  the  help 
which  they  might  otherwise,  and  very  properly,  get  from  books. 
They  know  that  they  should  not  copy  the  author's  words,  yet  do 
not  understand  how  to  clothe  the  thought  in  a  new  dress. 


280  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

It  is,  therefore,  recommended  that  throughout  the  first  year 
attention  be  devoted  mainly  to  the  reproduction  of  thought.  By 
constant  and  varied  practice  of  this  kind,  the  pupils  learn  how 
beautiful  and  interesting  even  common  things  appear  when  sketched 
by  a  skillful  word-painter.  Their  own  powers  of  observation  are 
quickened  by  noticing  the  results  of  the  careful  observation  of 
others.  Ingenuity,  accuracy,  and  aptness  of  expression  are  devel- 
oped. The  taste  is  educated  by  a  critical  study  of  cultured  idiom 
and  graceful  diction.  Abundant  material  is  provided,  so  that  the 
piipil  is  not,  at  the  outset,  discouraged  by  having  "nothing  to 
write." 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  one  will  be  successful  a»  a  teacher  of 
Composition  who  cannot  do  easily  the  work  which  she  exacts  from 
the  class.  She  should  be  able  not  merely  to  tell  them  how  to  write, 
but  to  sJimv  them  how.  A  little  help  of  this  kind  over  the  hard 
places  will  rob  composition-writing  of  many  of  its  terrors. 

Most  of  the  exercises  which  ai'e  quoted  as  examples  were  written 
by  pupils,  and  appear  "with  all  their  imperfections  thick  upon 
them."  They  are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  models,  but  as  helps  to 
the  beginner. 

The  "  Suggestions  "  throughout  the  chapter  will,  it  is  hoped,  be 
sei'viceable  to  young  teachers. 

GENERAL   DIRECTIONS   FOR    THE   PREPARATION    OF 
COMPOSITION   EXERCISES. 

1.  Writing-Materials.  —  Use  white  paper  of  Com- 
mercial Note  size,  rather  tlian  fancy  note-paper.  Write 
phiinly,  with  black  ink. 

2.  The  Subject.  —  Write  the  subject  on  the  first 
line,  which  is  commonly  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from 
the  top  of  the  page.  Arrange  the  subject  so  that  tlie 
spaces  at  the  right  and  left  of  it  shall  be  equal.  Begin 
with  capitals  all  the  important  words  in  the  subject,  — 
the  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs. 


COISIPOSITION-WRITING.  281 

3.  Place  of  Beginning-.  —  Leave  one  blank  line 
after  the  subject.  Upon  the  next  line  beloAV,  one  inch 
from  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  paper,  begin  to  write 
the  bod}'  of  the  composition. 

4.  Margins.  —  Begin  each  new  paragraph  one  inch 
from  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  sheet.  On  all  other 
lines  leave  a  uniform  margin  of  half  an  inch  at  the 
left-hand  side.  Leave  no  margin  at  the  right  of  the 
page.  Beginners,  who  find  it  difficult  to  keep  the  mar- 
gins uniform,  may  be  allowed  to  rule  lightly  two  pencil 
lines  to  serve  as  guides.  Draw  the  lines  parallel  to 
the  edge  and  at  the  distances  mentioned.  Erase  the 
lines  carefully  before  the  composition  is  handed  to  the 
teacher. 

5.  Paragraphs.  —  Group  in  one  paragraph  the  sen- 
tences which  are  most  closely  related  to  one  another. 
For  example,  if  the  subject  is  "■  Books,*'  include  in  one 
paragraph  all  that  you  have  to  write  upon  the  topic 
"Ancient  Books  "  ;  in  another,  your  thoughts  on  "Good 
Books,"  etc.  Do  not  arrange  each  sentence  as  if  it 
were  a  paragraph.  Take  up  a  book  and  notice  the 
margins  at  the  beginning  of  paragraphs  and  the  spaces 
between  sentences.  Notice,  also,  what  an  advantage  it 
is  to  have  a  page  of  reading  broken  into  paragraphs. 

6.  Pages.  —  Begin  the  composition  on  the  first  or 
outside  page  and  leave  the  fourth  page  blank.  If  you 
have  more  than  three  pages,  write  the  fourth  page  on  a 
new  sheet,  which  should  be  placed  inside  the  first  one. 
Number  the  pages  at  the  top,  if  the  composition  is  a 
long  one.     Write   your  name  at  the  top  of  each  new 


282  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

sheet  after  the  first.  The  teacher  will  find  this  a  con- 
venience if  the  papers  become  disarranged  while  she  is 
correcting  them. 

7.  Closing'.  —  Do  not  close  a  composition  with  an 
apology  for  having  written  so  little  or  so  poorly.  Try 
to  make  the  last  sentence  a  forcible  one,  and  when  it  is 
finished,  stop.     Do  not  add  "  Finis  "  or  "  The  End." 

8.  Folding-.  —  Having  arranged  the  sheets  carefully, 
according  to  directions,  fold  the  paper  once  lengthwise. 

9.  Superscription.  —  Taking  up  the  folded  exercise 
and  opening  it  as  if  to  read  the  first  page,  notice  which 
half  of  the  blank  outside  page  is  towards  your  left 
hand.  Upon  this  half,  write  the  superscription,  the 
first  line  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  top  of  the 
page.  The  superscription  should  be  in  three  lines, — 
Subject,  Name,  and  Date  ;  for  example  :  — 

THoA^  20,  1887. 

Do  not  write  on  the  outside  "  Composition."  Your 
teacher  will  understand  that  you  intend  it  for  one. 

10.  In  General.  —  Write  neatly,  without  flourishes. 
If  erasures  are  necessary,  make  them  with  a  sharp  pen- 
knife. Do  not  write  in  above  the  line  words  which 
you  have  carelessly  omitted.  Copying  the  exercise 
again  may  teach  you  to  be  more  careful.  Remember 
that  it  is  disrespectful  to  hand  to  your  teacher  a  soiled 
or  scribbled  exercise. 


COMPOSITION-WRITING.  283 

COMPOSITION. 
First  Year. 

Divisions  of  the  Subject.  —  In  all  written  composi- 
tion, two  things  are  to  be  considered.     They  are  :  — 

First.   The  Thought.     Second.   The  Expression. 

The  lirst  is,  of  course,  tlie  more  important.  What 
we  say  is  of  more  consequence  than  how  we  say  it. 
Nevertheless,  in  studying  Composition,  we  sliall  reverse 
tliis  order  and  consider  first,  Expression ;  because  we 
shall  find  it  easier  to  put  into  other  words  the  bright 
and  good  and  beautiful  thoughts  of  other  people,  than 
to  create  such  thoughts  for  ourselves. 

REPRODUCTION. 

Any  expression  of  another's  thoughts  in  our  own 
words  is  a  Reproduction.  It  may  be  only  a  phrase,  a 
clause,  or  a  sentence  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be 
a  long  story  or  essay. 

Varieties  of  Reproduction.  —  There  are  three  spe- 
cial forms  of  Reproduction,  —  Paraphrase,  Abstract,  and 
Amplification. 

PARAPHRASE. 

A  Paraphrase  is  a  reproduction  in  which  the  same 
thought  is  expressed  in  equivalent  words.  If  the 
original  article  be  written  in  verse,  the  thought  ex- 
pressed in  prose  is  a  paraphrase.  Retaining  the  origi- 
nal thought,  we  change  the  style  by  substituting  our 
own   expressions  for  the   author's.      A.   paraphrase    is, 


284  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

therefore,  a  sort  of  translation  from  another's   speech 
into  our  own. 

Ex.  From  his  half-itinerant  life,  he  was  a  sort  of  walk- 
ing gazette. 

Paraphrase.  —  He  sjient  nearly  half  his  time  in  going  tibont 
from  house  to  house,  and  so  he  became  a  kind  of  travelling 
newspaper. 

How  to  Write  a  Paraphrase. 

1.  Read  the  selection  carefully,  looking  up  the  defi- 
nition of  any  word  whose  meaning  is  not  clear  to  you. 
You  must  understand  exactly  what  the  author  means 
before  you  undertake  to  express  his  thought.  If  he 
uses  figurative  language,  study  his  figures  so  as  to  be 
able  to  give  the  same  idea  in  plain  language. 

2.  Taking  one  sentence,  or,  if  it  be  a  story,  one  para- 
graph at  a  time,  make  a  list  of  the  expressions  which 
you  wish  to  vary.  There  will  necessarily  be  some 
words  which  you  cannot  change  without  spoiling  the 
sense.  A  little  study  will  show  you  which  words  and 
phrases  may  safely  be  "  translated." 

3.  Select  other  words  and  phrases  to  substitute  for 
those  on  your  list.  The  Dictionary  will  help  you  in 
this.  Try  to  select  the  best  word.  Take  time  to  think 
whether  the  word  will  fit  into  the  place  which  you  in- 
tend it  to  occupy. 

4.  Reproduce  the  selection.  It  is  proper  in  translat- 
ing from  a  foreign  language  into  our  own,  to  make 
wliat  is  called  "  a  free  translation,"  changing  not  merely 
the  expression,  but  also  the  construction.  So,  in  this 
kind  of  translation,  we  should  not  paraphrase  word  by 


COMPOSITION-WKITING.  285 

word,  imitating  closely  the  author's  construction.  We 
may  sometimes  secure  variety  by  changing  from  the 
form  of  indirect  discourse  to  that  of  conversation,  or 
we  may  change  a  declarative  sentence  to  the  interrog- 
ative or  the  exclamatory  form. 

Cautions. 

1.  Be  careful  not  to  keep  the  words  of  the  author 
except  where  it  is  unavoidable.  The  best  paraphrase 
is  that  which  most  closely  follows  the  tliomjlit  of  the 
original,  while  bearing  the  least  resemblance  to  it  in 
form. 

2.  Do  not  assume  that  you  have  only  to  substitute 
the  definition  of  a  word  for  the  word  itself.  Ludicrous 
effects  are  sometimes  produced  in  this  way ;  as  for 
example,  the  following :  — 

Irving:  —  "The  foxglove  hang  its  blossoms  about  the 
nameless  uru." 

Paraphrase:  —  '•'"The  handsome  biennial  ^:>?on<  droop  its 
flowers  around  the  vessel  of  various  forms  loithout  a  name." 

3.  In  changing  poetry  to  prose,  carefully  avoid  any 
suggestion  of  rhyme.  Avoid  also  the  use  of  such  words 
as  morn^  eve.,  o'er,  ere,  methinks,  etc.,  and  such  inverted 
constructions  as  are  peculiar  to  poetry. 

The  Study  of  Synonyms.  —  Exercise  in  Paraphrase 
necessarily  involves  some  general  knowledge  of  syno- 
nyms. (See  "  Precision,"  Chap.  VI.)  If  there  are  sev- 
eral words  which  have  nearly  the  same  meaning,  Ave 
cannot  invariably  substitute  any  one  of  them  for  any 
other  without  spoiling  the  sense.  We  need  to  learn, 
therefore,  the  exact  meaning  of  each  word. 


286  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Advantages  of  Exercise  in  Paraphrasing'.  —  This 
kind  of  Reproduction  furnishes  excellent  practice  in 
writing. 

1.  It  teaches  us  to  notice  how  words  are  used  by- 
careful  writers.  It  often  happens  that  we  have  to  let  a 
word  or  a  phrase  stand  just  as  it  is  in  the  original,  be- 
cause the  author  has  chosen  the  best  possible  expression 
for  his  thought. 

2.  It  increases  the  number  of  words  at  our  command. 
If  we  learn  three  ways  of  expressing  an  idea  where  we 
knew  only  one  before,  we  are  richer  by  just  so  much. 

3.  It  enables  us  to  make  a  proper  use  of  another's 
thought  in  our  own  writings. 

OKAL  EXEEOISE. 

Suggestion.  —  The  teacher  may  select  from  the  lesson  for 
the  day  certain  expressions  for  the  class  to  paraphrase.  This 
should  be  a  feature  of  ever}'  literature  lesson.  Three  or  four 
pupils  may  be  called  upon  to  reproduce  the  same  thought, 
the  class  deciding  which  is  the  best  form.  It  is  well  to  begin 
with  short  extracts  ;  as,  for  example  :  — 

—  "  strode  with  a  martial  air." 

—  "an   insuperable    aversion   to  all  kinds  of    profitable 

labor." 

—  "  the  general  purport  of  this  legendary  superstition." 

—  '•'•  russet  beard  flaked  with  patches  of  snow." 

WRITTEN  EXERCISES. 

I.    Short  Paraphrases; 

Suggestion.  —  At  first  only  a  single  sentence  should  be 
assigned  for  the  writing.     The   paraphrases   may  then   be 


COMPOSITION- WRITING.  287 

read  and  eriticised  by  tlie  class.  After  a  little  practice 
of  this  kind,  the  teacher  may  distribute  to  the  class  slips  of 
paper,  on  each  of  which  she  has  written  a  sentence  from  the 
lesson.  Each  pupil  then  writes  his  paraphrase  of  the  sen- 
tence given  him.  If  the  sentences  are  chosen  with  a  view  to 
variety,  the  exercise  may  be  made  very  interesting  as  well 
as  profitable.     Insist  upon  x>romptness  in  reproduction. 

The  following  are  examples  of  sentences  which  have 
been  used  in  such  an  exercise  :  — 

"The  cognomen  of  Crane  was  not  inapplicable  to  his 
person." 

"  The  idol  of  to-day  pushes  the  hero  of  yesterday  out  of 
recollection  ;  and  will,  in  turn,  be  supplanted  by  his  suc- 
cessor of  to-morrow." 

"  Like  an  awakened  conscience,  the  sea  was  moaning  and 
tossing  ; 
Beating  remorseful   and   loud  the   mutable   sands  of  the 

sea-shore." 
"  Once  more  he  cudgelled  the  sides  of  the  inflexible  Gun- 
powder, and,  shutting  his  eyes,  broke  forth  with  involuntary 
fervor  into  a  psalm-tune." 

"  And  dread  Olympus  at  his  will 
Became  a  huckleberry  hill." 

II.    Extended  Paraphrase. 

A  paragraph  of  prose  or  a  stanza  of  poetry  may  now 
be  reproduced.  Remember  to  avoid  the  original  forms 
of  expression. 

Appropriate  Selections. 

Tlie  opening  lines  of  "Rip  Van  Winkle,"  containing  Irving's 
description  of  the  Catskills. 
Ichabod  Crane's  School-Room, 


288  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

The  closing  paragraph  of  "  Westminster  Abbey." 
The  opening  lines  of  "  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish." 
An  August  Noon,  from  Prelude  to  "  Among  the  Hills." 
The  Morning  after  the  Snow-Storm,  from  "  Snow-Bound." 
The  Music  of  the  Organ,  from  "  Westminster  Abbey." 

The  Miscellaneous  Exercises  at  the  close  of  the 
chapter  on  Figures  of  Speech  will  furnish  material 
for  exercises  of  this  kind.  For  example,  the  follow- 
ing extracts :  — 

26,  52,  56,  57,  58,  63,  70,  76,  79,  81,  85,  86,  90,  91,  92,  93,  94,  95, 
96,  97,  98,  101,  105,  107,  108,  116,  120,  124,  131,  133,  136,  140,  145, 
149. 

A  stanza  from  "  The  Psalm  of  Life,"  or  "  The  Builders." 

III.    Paraphrase  of  Poems. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  poems  which  may  be 
used  for  this  exercise  :  — 

Longfellow. 
Resignation. 
The  Builders. 

The  Ladder  of  St.  Augustine. 
The  Village  Blacksmith. 
The  Day  is  Done. 
Charles  Sumner. 
Travels  by  the  Fireside. 
In  the  Churchyard  at  Tarrytown. 
Last  four  stanzas  of  "  The  Golden  Milestone." 
The  Children's  Hour. 
Something  Left  Undone. 
Aftermath. 
Description  of  "  The  Wayside  Inn." 

Whittier. 

The  Frost  Spirit. 

A  Dream  of  Summer, 


COMPOSITION-WRITING.  289 

The  Angel  of  Patience. 

The  Iluskers. 

Tlie  Pumpkin. 

Gone. 

Seed-Time  and  Harvest. 

The  Barefoot  Boy. 

Parts  of  the  "  Last  Walk  in  Autumn." 

Skii)per  Ireson's  Ride. 

The  Pipes  at  Lucknow. 

The  Red  River  Voyageur. 

Lines  for  the  Agricultural  Exhibition  at  Amesbury. 

The  Changeling. 

The  Robin. 

ABSTRACT. 

An  Abstract  is  a  condensed  statement  of  another's 
thought.  The  most  important  ideas  are  presented  and 
in  the  same  order  as  in  the  original,  but  the  details  are 
omitted.  A  condensed  report  of  a  lecture  or  a  sermon 
is  an  abstract.  It  differs  from  Outline  in  being  ex- 
pressed in  complete  sentences. 

Ex.   "  In  the  old  daj's  (a  custom  laid  aside 

With  breeches  and  cocked  hats)  the  people  sent 

Their  wisest  men  to  make  the  public  laws  ; 

And  so,  from  a  brown  homestead,  where  the  Sound 

Drinks  the  small  tribute  of  the  Miauas, 

Waved  over  b}-  the  woods  of  Rippowams, 

And  hallowed  by  pure  lives  and  tranquil  deaths, 

Stamford  sent  np  to  the  councils  of  the  State 

Wisdom  and  grace  in  Abraham  Davenport."  Wldttier. 

Abstract. — More  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  choose  the  wisest  men  to  make  the  laws  ;  so  Stamford 
sent  Abraham  Davenport  to  the  Legislature. 


290  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

This  tells  ivho  was  sent,  from  wher(\  to  ivJiere^  when, 
and  why.  If  we  arrange  these  points  in  the  ^n-oper 
order,  we  shall  have  an  Outline. 

1.  When.  3.  From  where.  5.  To  where. 

2.  Why.  4.  Who. 

Advantag^es  Derived  from  Practice  in  Writing 
Abstracts.  —  The  chief  benefit  of  this  kind  of  repro- 
duction is  that  it  teaches  us  to  select  the  really  impor- 
tant ideas  from  the  article  which  we  have  to  condense. 
It  helps  us,  too,  to  see  clearly  the  relations  between 
different  parts  of  a  sketch  or  story.  A  third  advantage 
is  that  it  helps  us  to  cultivate  a  clear,  concise,  and 
forcible  style.  Young  writers  are  likely  to  use  too 
many  words  to  express  an  idea.  For  this  reason,  prac- 
tice in  writing  abstracts  is  of  special  importance  in  the 
early  part  of  our  work  in  Composition. 

How  to  Write  an  Abstract. 

1.  Read  carefully  the  whole  of  the  sketch  or  story 
or  poem  which  you  have  to  condense.  Be  sure  that 
you  understand  the  relation  of  parts  and  the  order  of 
events,  so  that  you  can  tell  the  whole  story  to  a  friend 
who  asks  what  you  have  been  reading. 

2.  Make  an  Outline  of  the  story.  This  should  be 
brief,  consisting  of  not  more  than  five  or  six  topics  or 
lieads,  expressed  as  concisely  as  possible.  Take  care 
to  select  the  most  important  topics  and  to  arrange  them 
in  the  right  order. 

3.  Consider  the  relative  importance  of  the  topics, 
and  decide  about  how  much  time  and  space  you  can 


COMPOSITION-AVRITING.  291 

afford  to  devote  to  each.  A  very  common  mistake,  in 
the  writing  of  Abstracts,  is  that  of  reproducing  too 
many  details  in  the  early  part  of  the  work  and  making 
the  last  part  very  much  more  condensed. 

4.  Express  clearly,  definitely,  in  complete  sentences, 
but  concisely,  what  you  wish  to  say  upon  each  of  the 
topics.  Avoid  rhyme,  and  do  not  borrow  the  author's 
language  except  where  it  is  unavoidable. 

EXEKOISE  IN  WRITING  ABSTEAGTS. 

I.    Condense  a  long  sentence. 

Ex.  Thus  one  object  of  curiosity  succeeded  another  ;  hill, 
valley,  stream,  and  woodland  flitted  by  me  like  the  shifting 
scenes  of  a  magic  lantern,  and  one  train  of  thought  gave 
place  to  another  till,  at  length,  in  the  after  part  of  the  day, 
we  entered  the  broad  and  shady  avenue  of  fine  old  trees 
which  leads  to  the  western  gate  of  Rouen,  and  a  few  moments 
afterward  were  lost  in  the  crowds  and  confusion  of  its  narrow 
streets.  "  The  Norman  Dihgence."    Longfelloio. 

Making-  the  Outline.  —  We  notice  that  the  most 
important  topics  are  the  following:  — 

1.  What  we  saw.  3.    In  what  place. 

2.  When  we  arrived.         4.   How  our  journey  ended. 

If  we  wish  to  make  the  outline  still  more  concise,  we 
may  write  it  in  this  way :  — 

1.  What.  3.   Where. 

2.  When.  4.    How. 

The  Abstract.  —  The  scenery  and  the  tlioughts  suggested 
by  it  continually  changed.      Late   in   the   day,   we   passed 


-92  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

through  a  shady  street  leading  to  the  gate  of  Rouen.  We 
were  soon  bewildered  in  the  cramped  and  crowded  tliorough- 
fares  of  the  city. 

IT.    Write  an  Abstract  from  a  paragraph  or  from  a 
short  anecdote. 

Suggestion .  — Pupils  may  decide  what  topics  to  select,  the 
teacher  guiding  the  selection,  expression,  and  arrangement. 
Or,  each  pupil  may  make  his  own  outline,  and  the  class  may 
decide  which  is  the  best,  all  using  that  one  as  the  basis  of 
the  abstract. 

Paragraphs  for  this  exercise  may  be  selected  from 
the  reading  books.  Short  anecdotes  from  "The  Youth's 
Companion  "  furnish  excellent  material  for  the  writing- 
of  Abstracts. 

General  directions  for  Ontlines  of  longer  selections. 

1.  Select  but  a  few  general  topics.  These  may  be 
subdivided  if  necessary. 

2.  Express  each  topic  briefly,  but  definitely. 

3.  See  that  the  list  of  topics  includes  the  whole  sub- 
ject, without  repetition  of  the  same  thought  in  two  or 
more  of  them. 

4.  Arrange  the  topics  carefully. 

5.  Whenever  possible,  select  for  your  first  topic  what 
will  make  a  suitable  Introduction ;  and  for  the  last,  one 
which  will  be  a  good  Conclusion.  The  intervening  top- 
ics may  be  called  the  Discussion. 

III.  Write  an  Abstract  of  a  story  told  in  either  prose 
or  poetry. 

Suggestion.  —  The  story  should  commonly  be  selected 
from  one  of  the  authors  whose  works  are  studied  in  class. 


COMPOSITION-W  RIT ING. 


293 


The  teacher  may,  howover,  find  it  profitable  to  vary  the  style 
of  selections,  choosing  occasionally  a  good  story  from  "  St. 
Nicholas"  or  "  "Wide  Awake,"  "Harper's  Young  People," 
or  "  The  Youth's  Companion." 

The  first  exercise  of  this  kind  should  be  written  in  class. 
Select  a  story  with  which  all  arc  familiar.  Let  pupils  dictate 
as  to  choice,  form,  and  arrangement  of  topics,  and  the  space 
to  be  devoted  to  each.  Then  let  each  topic  in  turn  be 
developed  by  the  class. 

The  following  outline  for  "  Rip  Van  Winkle "  was 
prepared  in  this  way  :  — 

Ir.    Where  —  village,  houses. 
2.    Who  —  ancestors,  character, 
o.    Family  —  wife,  children. 

4.  Farm  —  former  and  present  condition. 

5.  Occupations  —  amusing  children, 
attending  to  business  of 

others, 
gossiping  at  the  inn. 

6.  Expedition  —  why,  when,  where. 

7.  What  He  Saw  —  strange  acquaintance, 

amphitheatre. 

8.  What  He  Did  —  the  flagou,  its  effects. 

9.  Awakening  —  dog,  gun,  feelings. 
10.    Return  —  homeward  way,  the  house, 

the  inn,  the  people, 
his   reception,   perplexity,   re- 
cognition, 
his  daughter,  his  wife. 


I.   Introduction.    ^ 


n.   Discussion. 


TIT.   Conclusion. 


(11. 
(  12, 


Later  Life  —  where,  occupations. 
Fame  —  influence  of  the  story. 


This  may  be  condensed,  combining,  for  example,  topics 
6,  7,  and  8 ;  also  11  and  12  ;  1,  2,  4,  and  5. 


294  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

SUBJECTS   FOR  ABSTRACTS. 
Irving. 

The  Adventures  of  Ichabod  Crane 

The  Quiltmg  Bee. 

Rip  Van  Winkle's  Awakening. 

Longfellow. 

Priscilla's  Wedding. 

The  Lover's  Errand. 

The  Blind  Girl  of  Castel-Cuille. 

The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus. 

Rain  in  Summer. 

The  Emperor's  Bird's-Nest. 

Sandalphou. 

Paul  Revere's  Ride. 

The  Bell  of  Atri. 

Kambalu. 

Lady  Wentworth. 

The  Monk  of  Casal-Maggiore. 

The  Leap  of  Roushan  Beg. 

WlIITTIER. 

The  Quaker  Household. 

Farm-Life  in  Winter. 

The  Garrison  of  Cape  Ann. 

The  Prophecy  of  Samuel  Sewall. 

The  Swan  Song  of  Parson  Avery. 

Cobbler  Keezar's  Vision. 

The  Wreck  of  Rivermouth. 

The  Brother  of  Mercy. 

Kallundborg  Church. 

King  Solomon  and  the  Ants. 

The  Legend  of  St.  Mark. 

April. 

Kathleen. 

Mary  Garvin. 

The  Witch's  Daughter. 

The  Well  of  Loch  Maree. 


OOMIHISTTTON-WRITING.  295 

Biography.  —  The  writing  of  Biography  may  prop- 
erly be  included  under  Abstract,  since  we  must,  of 
necessity,  condense  the  story  of  an  author's  life,  as 
told  by  others. 

Advantages.  —  Besides  fixing  in  our  minds  the  main 
incidents  in  the  life  of  an  author,  this  kind  of  reproduc- 
tion affords  good  practice  in  the  making  of  Outlines. 

The  Outline.  —  If  we  examine  the  sketch  of  Irving's 
life,  as  given  in  Chapter  XL,  we  shall  notice  that  it  is 
an  Abstract,  the  outline  being  made  up  of  the  topics 
which  are  given  as  headings.  Having  written  this  in 
the  form  of  an  Outline,  let  us  see  if  we  can  make  any 
changes  in  the  order  of  topics.  We  notice  at  once  that 
there  is  no  Introduction  or  Conclusion ;  so  those  may 
be  supplied.  We  may  properly  make  some  mention 
of  his  works  before  we  reach  the  end  of  the  sketch  of 
his  life.  We  may  even  refer  to  his  death  before  we  say 
anything  about  his  boyhood.  Biographical  sketches  of 
prominent  men  who  have  recently  passed  away  often 
open  with  a  reference  to  the  death,  since  it  is  that 
event  which  calls  public  attention  to  the  life.  Notice 
whether  it  is  possible  to  combine  any  two  topics.  Sup- 
ply omitted  topics,  such  as  Personal  Appearance,  Char- 
acter, etc. 

Suggestion.  —  The  teacher  may  direct  pupils  in  the  recon- 
structiou  of  this  Outline,  so  as  to  make  one  which  shall  give 
the  events  in  order  of  time.  This  is  a  valuable  exercise, 
since  in  this  way  pupils  learn  to  associate  the  works  of  an 
author  with  persons  and  places  and  events. 

The  Introduction.  —  Nothing  is  more  monotonous 
than  a  series  of  biographies  all  of    which  begin  with, 


296  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 

"  Washington  Irving  was  born  in  New  York,  April  3, 
1783."  Study  variety  of  expression,  with  a  view  to 
making  a  pleasing  Introduction.  We  realize  how  im- 
portant first  impressions  are.  Perhaps  you  have  some- 
times decided  not  to  read  what  had  been  recommended 
to  you  as  a  good  book,  simply  because  you  do  not  like 
the  way  in  which  it  begins.  You  cannot  "  get  inter- 
ested "  in  the  story.  You  will  understand,  then,  why 
we  must  try  to  have  something  fresh  and  interesting  for 
the  first  topic.  Let  us  notice  some  of  the  ways  in 
which  we  may  begin  a  sketch  of  Irving's  life. 

1.  Near  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  River,  in  the  pleasant 
village  of  Irvington,  stands  a  quaint  stone  cottage  built  hi 
the  Dutch  style  and  overgrown  with  ivy.  Many  a  traveler 
stops  to  gaze  at  the  house,  and  many  a  question  is  asked  of 
the  townspeople  concerning  the  former  owner  of  the  estate. 
We,  too,  shall  be  interested  to  know  more  of  the  place  ;  for 
this  is  "  Sunnyside,"  the  home  of  Washington  Irving. 

2.  Once  upon  a  time,  there  was  a  little  boy  who  couldn't 
have  as  much  fun  as  he  wished,  simply  because  all  the  people 
around  him  entertained  very  strict  ideas  as  to  how  young 
people  should  behave.  This  poor  lad,  for  whom  I  have  a 
great  deal  of  sympathy,  was  the  youngest  of  eleven  chil- 
dren.    His  name  was  Washington  Irving. 

3.  An  old  lady  once  made  the  remark,  "Yes,  George 
Washington  was  a  greaf  man,  but  I  never  knew  a  child 
named  after  him  that  amounted  to  a  row  of  pins." 

"  Why,  Grandma,"  said  a  gentle  voice,  "  j'ou  must  have 
forgotten  Washington  Irving.  I'm  sure  he  was  a  worthy 
namesake." 

"Irving?"  said  the  old  lady,  "the  only  Irving  that  I 
know   anything   about  is   that  play-actor,  and  his  name's 


COMPOSITION-WKITING.  297 

Henry.     Do  tell  us  who  Washiugton  Irviug  is  and  what  he's 
done ! " 

Conclusion.  —  Careful  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  Conclusion.  At  any  entertainment,  we  expect  the 
best  things  to  come  at  the  end  of  the  programme, 
because  the  mind  naturally  lingers  upon  what  comes 
last.  So  in  the  writing,  we  should  aim  to  make  the  last 
paragraph  the  most  effective  one.  In  this,  as  in  the 
Introduction,  try  to  be,  to  some  extent,  original.  Do  not 
write  just  what  everybody  else  would  be  likely  to  write. 

As  has  been  suggested,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
concluding  topic  be  "Death  and  Burial."  "Character," 
"Fame,"  and  "Influence  of  His  Writings"  are  appro- 
priate topics  for  the  Conclusion. 

Suggestion.  —  In  the  same  way,  the  biographies  of  Long- 
fellow and  Whittier  may  be  reproduced. 

Autobiography.  —  Write  a  sketch  of  your  own  life, 
making  the  Outline  first.  The  following  autobiography 
will  furnish  some  hints  concerning  choice  of  topics. 

My  Biography. 

Fearing  that  some  of  the  most  important  events  of  my 
life  will  never  be  presented  to  the  public  if  I  leave  the  task 
of  writing  them  to  other  persons,  I  have  decided  to  write  my 
biography  myself,  in  order  that  none  of  the  incidents  of  my 
life  may  escape  the  public  notice. 

As  some  disputes  may  arise  among  future  biographers,  in 
reference  to  my  birth-place,  it  may  be  well  to  inform  any 
who  feel  interested,  that  the  city  of  Bridgeport  was  so 
honored,  altliougli  the  greater  portion  of  my  life  has  been 
passed  in  our  beautiful  "  City  of  Elms." 


298  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

I  have  uo  remembrance  of  the  first  two  or  three  years  of 
my  life,  but  I  presume  that  I  had  my  fair  proportion  of  bab3^ 
troubles  and  pleasures  and  swallowed  the  usual  quantity  of 
catnip-tea  and  soothing-syrup. 

My  mother  says  that  I  was  good  when  I  was  young.  I 
hope  I  was,  but  am  afraid  that  I  have  got  bravely  over 
it.  .  .  . 

When  I  was  five  years  old,  I  commenced  to  attend  school, 
where  I  learned  to  read,  write,  spell,  and  on  Wednesday 
afternoons  to  make  patchwork  and  pin  cushions.  There 
were  fifteen  scholars  in  the  school,  but  only  two  besides  myself 
in  the  lowest  class.  These  two  were  boys,  and  my  highest 
aim  was  to  be  a  little  in  advance  of  them  in  Lovell's  First 
Reader. 

We  did  not  have  such  recesses  as  we  do  here,  where  we 
tiptoe  down  stairs,  take  a  sniff  of  fresh  air,  and  tiptoe  back 
again,  all  in  five  minutes;  but  at  eleven  o'clock,  we  rushed 
out  into  the  yard  and  amused  ourselves  until  a  quarter  of 
twelve.  We  placed  "May-pole  "  and  "  Miss  'Ginia  Jones," 
and  the  boys  played  marbles  and  ball,  and  sometimes  con- 
descended to  take  the  part  of  "man  of  the  house,"  and 
assist  us  in  our  house-keeping  arrangements.  Sometimes, 
too,  the  l)oys  were  Indians,  who  attacked  a  traveling  party 
consisting  of  six  or  seven  girls,  two  kittens,  a  rag  doll,  and 
whatever  else  we  could  find  that  would  answer  the  purpose  ; 
and  although  there  was  no  loss  of  life  in  these  skirmishes, 
there  was  no  lack  of  noise.  They  imitated  the  war-whoop 
to  perfection,  and  made  a  noise  resembling  the  war-drums 
by  jumping  on  the  cellar  doors  ;  and  we  pretended  to  l)c 
frightened  out  of  our  senses,  and  begged  for  mercy  for  our- 
selves and  our  children,  which  favor  the  Indians  consented 
to  grant,  doubtless  remembering  that  "discretion  is  tlic 
better  part  of  valor,"  and  that  if  they  were  too  savage,  they 
would  be  reported  to  the  teacher, 


COMPOSITION-WRITING.  299 

It  was  about  tills  time  that  I  attended  ray  first  part}-.  The 
girls  were  all  in  a  flutter  of  excitement,  and  held  numerous 
whispered  conferences,  but  succeeded  admirably  in  keeping 
the  victim  of  the  surprise  in  ignorance  of  their  plans.  1 
could  scarcely  wait  until  the  evening  came  ;  but  it  did  come 
at  last,  and  I  went,  wondering  what  the  party  would  be  like, 
and  whether  I  should  enjoy  myself  or  not. 

My  father  was  to  come  for  me  at  nine,  and  until  that  time 
games  were  played,  and  then  supper  was  announced.  I 
remembered  my  mother's  injunction,  and  ate  just  a  very  little 
of  the  cakes  and  candies.  I  well  remember  telling  my  father 
when  he  came  that  1  "■  couldn't  go  home  until  the  party  was 
out,"  which  unsophisticated  remark  greatly  amused  some 
ladies  who  overheard  it. 

I  soon  left  that  part  of  the  city,  and  parted  from  my 
friends  and  schoolmates,  to  form  other  acquaintances  and 
find  other  friends  in  new  circles.  Some  of  those  little  friends 
whom  I  left  then,  have  now  become,  in  their  own  eyes, 
young  ladies,  and  have  entirely  forgotten  me  ;  some  have 
left  the  city,  and  I  have  lost  sight  of  them,  and  a  few  have 
been  taken  by  death  ;  but  from  whatever  cause  it  may  be, 
we  are  separated  forever,  as  a  school,  and  we  shall  no  more 
"  keep  house  "  in  the  woodshed,  no  more  play  Indian  massa- 
cre on  the  cellar  doors  —  together. 

But  in  my  new  home  I  found  new  friends,  who  gradually 
took  the  places  of  my  former  companions  ;  and  although  I 
did  not  entirely  forget  my  associates,  1  ceased  to  miss  them. 
I  now  attended  a  public  school,  which  I  found  very  pleasant, 
and  in  which  I  made  great  improvement. 

As  my  illustrious  career  in  this  institution  will  soon  close, 
and  as  some  of  the  particular  points  of  my  life's  history  have 
now  been  given  to  the  world,  I  think  I  may  safely  leave  the 
rest  with  ray  biographer,  hoping  that  he  will  not  permit  this 
history  of  my  early  years  to  perish. 


300  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


AMPLIFICATION. 


Amplification  is  the  opposite  of  Abstract.  An  Am- 
])Iification  is  an  expanded  statement  of  another's  thought. 
Things  left  unsaid  or  only  hinted  at  in  the  original  are 
fully  and  positively  expressed  in  the  Amplification. 
The  details  are  carefully  given  and  the  imagination  is 
allowed  free  play. 

Ex.    A  ship  was  lost  at  sea. 

Amplijication.  —  Many  years  ago,  on  a  beautiful  Septem- 
ber moruing,  a  ship  sailed  out  of  the  harbor  of  New  York, 
bound  for  the  East  Indies.  She  was  loaded  with  the  prod- 
ucts of  American  industry  and  was  expected  to  bring  back 
a  cargo  of  coffee  and  spices.  The  captaiu  was  a  young  man 
full  of  energy  and  ambition.  He  was  the  only  sou  of  a  wid- 
owed mother.  On  board  were  two  passengers,  a  boy  and  a 
girl,  the  children  of  a  missionary  in  India.  They  had  been 
at  school  in  America,  but  had  been  summoned  to  their  distant 
home  by  the  news  that  their  mother  grieved  so  sorely  over 
the  separation  from  her  children  that  her  life  was  in  danger. 
The  days  sped  on  and  lengthened  into  weeks,  but  the  good 
ship  did  not  reach  her  port.  Months  passed,  but  no  tidings 
of  the  missing  vessel  came  to  either  shore.  On  one  side,  an 
aged  woman,  watching  for  a  sail  that  never  came,  cried  to 
the  sea,  "  Bring  back  my  boy."  On  the  other  side,  a  dying 
mother  moaned,  "Give  back  my  dear  ones."  But  the  sea 
gave  no  sign.  Years  have  roUed  away,  and  both  mothers 
have  gone  where  there  is  "no  more  sea  "  ;  but  still  the  waves 
hide  their  cruel  secret. 

Actvaiitages  of  Amplification.  —  The  chief  advan- 
tage of  Amplification  is  that  it  is  a  step  towards  original 
composition.     It  swigests  ideas  and  leaves  us  to  think 


COMrOSlTlON-WlilTING.  "    301 

tliem  out  more  fully  —  to  develop  the  meaning  in  our 
own  way.  It  is  like  taking  a  pencil  sketch  which  some 
one  else  lias  made,  and  producing  from  it  a  finished 
picture,  using  our  own  taste  as  to  the  colors  and  tones, 
the  lights  and  shades. 

How  to  Amplify  a  Selection. 

1.  Read  the  selection  carefully  until  you  are  so  famil- 
iar with  the  story  that  you  can  tell  it  in  your  own 
words. 

2.  Write  an  orderly  list  of  the  points  or  incidents  of 

the  story  as  told  by  the  author. 

3.  JSIake  a  list  of  the  things  which  are  omitted ;  as, 
for  example,  place,  time,  name  of  person,  occupation, 
history,  events  leading  to  the  incident,  consequences, 
conclusion.  Try  to  supply  in  this  way  whatever  the 
original  story  leaves  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader. 

4.  From  the  two  lists,  make  a  complete  Outline, 
observing  the  directions  previously  given. 

5.  Study  the  Outline  with  reference  to  relative  im- 
portance of  the  topics,  and  decide  about  how  much 
space  to  devote  to  each. 

6.  Expand  each  topic  in  the  best  words  at  your  com- 
mand, carefully  avoiding  the  forms  of  expression  in  the 
original. 

7.  Be  careful  to  connect  the  topics  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  story  shall  not  seem  disjointed.  Read  over 
what  you  have  written,  noticing  whether  the  transition 
from  one  topic  to  another  seems  abrupt.  If  it  does, 
you  must  try  to  connect  the  parts  more  smoothly.    This 


o 


02  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH. 


may  often  be  done  by  using  such  expressions  as  "  never- 
theless," "  on  the  other  hand,"  "  meanwhile,"  "  how- 
ever," "in  spite  of  all  this,"  "and  so." 

EXERCISE  m  AMPLinOATION. 

I.  Amplify  a  Sentence. 

Suggestion. — The  teacher  should  (luestion  pupils  regard- 
ing the  successive  steps  in  making  the  Outline.  Let  the 
class  make  the  selection  of  topics,  the  teacher  writing  them 
upon  the  blackboard  in  the  order  named.  The  arrangement 
may  then  be  criticised  and  corrected.  Let  the  whole  class 
write  from  the  same  outline.  The  reproductions  may  be 
read  aloud,  in  order  to  see  how  different  stories  may  be  pro- 
duced from  the  same  list  of  topics. 

Examples  of  Sentences. 

A  kitten  went  to  school. 

A  man  was  accidentally  killed. 

A  little  boy  saved  his  father. 

Spring  is  coming. 

"Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines." 

The  king  walked  throu^i  the  city  in  disguise. 

"  A  stone  that  is  fit  for  the  wall  is  never  left  in  the  way." 

From  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Figures,  the  following 
extracts  :  — 

1,  10,  14,  17,  20,  32,  37,  38,  45,  69,  71,  72,  83,  84,  102,  117,  118, 
129,  139,  142,  147. 

II.  Amplify  a  Paragraph. 

Suggestion.  —  Select  from  the  lesson  a  descriptive  para- 
graph, and  let  the  pupils  write  a  short  story  to  lit  the  scene. 


COMPOSITION-WRITING.  303 

Any  of  the  following  extracts  from  the  Exiuuples  of  Figures 
may  be  assigned  for  amplification  :  — 

l;3,  43,  62,  79,  81,  96,  100,  105,  110,  119,  127,  132,  133,  136,  148, 
149. 

III.    Amplify  a  Story  told  in  Poetry. 

Specimen  of  Keproduction  of  this  kind  :  — 

The  Old  Knight's  Treasure. 

The  original  poem,  by  Henry  IMorford,  may  be  found  in  Baker's 
Premium  Speaker,  Part  IV.  p.  57. 

AnipUjication . — The  wind  moaned  mournfully  through 
the  forest  trees  and  round  the  grim  old  castle,  standing  high 
on  a  hill,  from  which  the  Rhine,  man}^  miles  distant,  was 
just  visible.  At  the  back  of  the  castle,  the  forest  extended 
almost  to  the  wall ;  but  in  front,  there  was  nothing  to  ob- 
struct the  view  down  to  the  beautiful  river.  It  was  a  grand, 
lonely  place ;  grand  in  its  site,  and  lonely,  cut  off  as  it  was 
from  all  the  world,  by  the  seemingly  limitless  forest. 

The  nature  of  the  place  was  indicative  of  the  character  of 
its  owner.  He  was  isolated  from  all  mankind  by  an  impen- 
etrable forest  of  reserve,  and  that  he  was  proud  and  stern 
was  the  vei'dict  of  all  who  had  ever  seen  him.  But  there  had 
been  days  when  old  Sir  John  was  very  different.  The  ser- 
vants could  remember  the  time  when  he  had  been  a  kind  and 
jovial  master,  never  passing  them  without  a  word  of  encour- 
agement ;  when  he  had  been  happy  in  the  love  of  a  gentle 
wife  and  a  bright-e^'ed  little  son. 

Those  davs  had  long  been  over.  All  the  light-heartedness 
was  changed  into  gloom,  and  stern  commands  came  in  place 
of  kind  words.  People  thought  that  he  had  already  outlived 
his  usefulness  ;  and  his  heirs,  especially,  were  longing  for 
his  death.     For  did  he  not  own  lands  enough  to  make  them 


304  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

all  rich?  And  what  good  did  luxuries  do  him?  He  was  a 
soured,  discontented  old  man,  they  thought,  and  did  not  de- 
serve all  his  good  things.  But  little  did  poor  old  Sir  John 
care  for  the  silver  that  shone  on  his  side-board  and  the  ele- 
gant furnishings  of  his  rooms.  They  could  give  him  little 
comfort,  since  he  had  lost  all  that  he  loved  in  the  world. 

He  sat  in  his  own  room  brooding  over  the  fire.  Who 
could  tell  what  his  thoughts  might  be  ?  One  of  the  servants 
would  have  said  that  he  was  thinking  of  his  hoarded  treas- 
ures ;  for  ever  and  anon  he  Avould  look  at  a  huge  chest  stand- 
ing by  his  bed,  and  every  one  knew  that  this  chest  contained 
the  most  valuable  of  all  the  old  knight's  possessions.  What 
it  held  was  the  greatest  of  the  many  m3'steries  of  his  life ; 
for  no  one  knew  more  than  was  whispered  b3'  the  servants. 
They  encouraged  the  idea  that  it  contained  gold  and  price- 
less stones  ;  for  on  its  cover  were  inscribed  these  words : 
"  Remember  all,  whate'er  befall,  save  this  whatever  else  be 
lost." 

Rising  from  his  chair,  Sir  John  walked  to  the  window  ; 
and  as  he  looked  up  at  the  stars,  "  the  forget-me-nots  of  the 
angels,"  he  wished  that  he  might  feel  as  calm  and  untroubled 
as  they  looked,  and  prayed  that  he  might  soon  be  released 
from  his  loneliness. 

It  was  not  long  that  he  had  to  wait.  A  week  from  that 
night,  after  a  chill  and  cheerless  day,  he  lay  on  his  stately  bed 
for  the  last  time ;  and  this  time  he  was  as  calm  as  the  stars. 

Oh,  how  heartless  the  heirs  seemed,  hardly  restraining 
themselves  till  the  prayers  were  over !  All  waited  with  the 
greatest  eagerness  for  the  mysterious  chest  to  be  opened. 
Hastening  into  the  room  where  it  was  kept,  they  crowded 
around  it  while  nail  after  nail  was  loosened.  At  last  the 
cover  was  lifted  off,  and  each  tried  to  catch  the  first  glimpse 
of  the  riches  witliin.  Suddenly  they  drew  back,  staring  in 
each  other's  faces  in  speechless  amazement  and  anger. 


COMPOSITION-WRITING.  305 

The  chest  contained  only  the  toys  of  a  boy  ;  the  top,  whip, 
cord,  and  kite,  all  placed  tenderly  side  by  side,  b}^  the  father 
who  had  been  called  harsh,  cold,  and  heartless.  So  had  the 
lonely  man  cherished,  all  these  j'ears,  the  memory  of  the 
bright  little  boy  who  had  promised  so  mnch  and  had  left  him 
so  early. 

POEMS  FOR  a:\iplification. 

Longfellow. 

The  Phantom  Ship. 

The  Skeleton  in  Armor. 

The  Castle  by  the  Sea. 

Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. 

Excelsior. 

The  Xorman  Baron. 

The  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs. 

The  Arrow  and  the  Song. 

The  Statue  over  the  Catliedrul  Door. 

Selection  from  the  "  Biiilding  of  the  Ship." 

Twilight. 

Gaspar  Becerra. 

The  Warder  of  the  Cinque  Ports. 

Killed  at  the  Ford. 

Moritui'i  Salutamus  :  "  In  medipeval  Rome,"  etc. 

Evangeline  :  "  Once  in  an  ancient  city,"  etc. 

The  Revenge  of  Rain-in-the-Face. 

Haroun  al  Raschid. 

Daybreak. 

The  Cumberland. 

WlIITTIER. 

Maud  Muller. 
Telling  the  Bees. 
The  Gift  of  Tritemius. 
Barbara  Frietchie. 
Abraham  Davenport. 
In  School-Days. 
The  Sisters. 


80G  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

COMPOSITIONS   FROM   PICTURES. 

As  the  next  step  towards  original  composition,  we 
may  write  stories  or  descriptions  from  pictures.  The 
topics  are  now  suggested,  not  by  words,  but  hy  forms. 

The  following  story  was  written  from  a  picture  repre- 
senting a  boy  in  a  row-boat  to  which  a  kite  is  attached 
by  a  long  string.     A  ship  appears  in  the  distance. 

How  Johnny  Clark  was  Cured  of  Being  a  Sailor. 

One  aftt'rnoou,  Johnny  Clark,  a  thrifty  farmer's  son,  made 
up  his  mind  to  go  to  sea.  He  had  been  reading  an  exciting- 
sea  tale,  and,  inspired  with  a  desire  to  become  a  gallant 
sailor  lad,  he  determined  to  start  that  evening.  Accord- 
ingly, towards  evening,  he  packed  up  a  few  clothes  in  a  red 
handkerchief,  and  after  dark,  slipped  out  of  the  door  with- 
out letting  his  parents  know  anything  about  his  plan. 

He  had  pocket-money  enough  to  carry  him  to  the  nearest 
sea-port.  Here  he  found  a  three-masted  schooner  wanting  a 
cabin  boy  ;  and  being  glad  of  the  opportunity,  he  shipped. 

Now  it  was  that  poor  Johnny's  troubles  began  ;  for,  after 
being  a  day  at  sea,  he  began  to  be  sea  sick.  He  was  kicked 
around  by  the  captain  and  mate,  and  more  than  once  wished 
that  he  was  at  home. 

IJut  to  pass  on  to  the  main  part  of  the  story.  Johnny  had 
been  on  the  water  two  months  when  his  ship  was  wrecked  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  A  great  water-spout  struck  the  vessel, 
and  everybody  but  Johnny  being  on  deck,  all  were  washed 
overboard.  The  ship  was  going  through  the  water  at  a  ter- 
rific rate  of  speed  at  the  time  she  was  struck  ;  and,  of  course, 
Johnny  could  do  nothing  to  aid  the  men.  Now  he  was  in  a 
pretty  fix.  He  was  soon  out  of  sight  of  the  men  in  the  water, 
and  seeing  a  small  island  almost  directly  ahead,  he  put  the 
wheel  over  a  few  points,  and  soon  the  ship  struck  on  the  island. 


(  "o:mposition-\v  riting.  307 

Johnuy's  next  thought  was  of  getting  aid  or  being  taken 
off  the  isUind.  For  four  days  he  watched,  and  on  the  fifth 
day  he  hit  upon  a  means  of  escape.  Taking  the  long-boat, 
lie  put  some  provisions  under  the  seat,  and  after  constructing 
a  kite,  he  obtained  a  ball  of  strong  twine  from  the  cabin,  and 
then  put  up  the  kite.  Hitching  the  end  of  the  kite-string  to 
the  bow  of  the  boat,  he  shoA-ed  off.  He  had  been  on  the  ocean 
but  a  few  hours  when  he  espied  a  ship  coming  to  his  assist- 
ance. The  captain  said  that  he  had  seen  the  signal  and  was 
glad  to  help  the  boy  out.  Johnny  was  very  thankful  when 
lie  found  himself  on  his  way  home,  and  when  he  arrived 
there  he  concluded  that  he  would  never  again  go  to  sea. 

Siiggestion.  —  For  the  first  exercise  the  teacher  may  select 
a  picture  large  enough  for  all  to  see.  Let  the  class  tell 
what  the  picture  shows  and  what  it  suggests  to  their  minds. 
From  these  hints,  a  plan  for  the  story  may  be  written  and 
afterwards  developed  by  each  pupil  in  his  own  way.  After  a 
little  practice  of  this  kind,  the  teacher  may  distril)ute  to  the 
pupils  pictures  which  she  has  cut  from  old  books  and  papers. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  select  such  as  tell  a  story.  Instruct 
pupils  to  write  first  the  plan  and  then  the  development. 
Later,  let  them  write  descriptions  from  pictures. 

INVENTION. 

We  may  now  attempt  to  invent  thought  for  ourselves, 
instead  of  reproducing  the  thoughts  of  other  persons, 
expressed  in  various  ways.  It  will  be  easier  at  first,  to 
write  upon  subjects  which  will  exercise  the  imagination. 

Caution.  —  In  this  species  of  composition,  be  careful  not 
to  give  your  imagination  too  much  liberty.  The  charm  of 
this  kind  of  writing  consists  in  making  the  story  seem  not 
only  probable,  but  natural. 


308  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

The  following  composition  is  founded  upon  fact,  but 
is  largely  imaginative  :  — 

The  Story  op  a  Lead  Pencil. 

I  am  onl}'  a  stubby  little  pencil,  but  I  was  ouce  as  long  as 
the  best  and  newest  of  j^ou.  I  was  not  battered  as  I  am 
now,  but  fresh  and  new,  with  a  nice  little  rubber  cap  on  m^- 
head.  But  my  owner  was  often  hungry  (they  had  a  long 
session  at  his  school) ,  and  so  he  chewed  and  chewed  upon 
the  rubber  until  it  disappeared.  I  had  a  name,  too,  — 
"  Dixon.  M." — printed  in  fine  gilt  letters  on  my  side;  but 
the  name  can  scarcely  be  deciphered  now. 

Perhaps  you'd  like  to  hear  my  story.  Well,  one  morning 
I  was  having  a  comfortable  though  rather  dull  time  on  a 
shelf  in  Atwater's  store,  when  in  came  a  boy.  He  paid 
seven  cents  for  a  pencil,  and  by  good  luck  (for  him,  not  for 
me  !)  had  me  given  to  him. 

He  slipped  me  under  the  strap  wdiich  held  his  books  and 
started  off.  I  looked  about  me  a  little,  and  discovered  that 
my  companions  in  bondage  were  a  Cajsar,  an  Algebra,  and 
a  little  green  book  only  part  of  whose  name  I  could  see.  It 
looked  like  "Snow — ."  In  a  few  minutes  we  entered  a 
large  building,  and  I  presently  discovered  that  I  was  in  a 
school-room. 

Oh,  such  fun  as  I  have  had  since  then  !  My  owner  and  I 
have  not  learned  much,  but  I  tell  you  we  have  enjoyed  our- 
selves. Twice  a  day  we  have  climbed  up  long  flights  of 
stairs  to  a  little  room  where  we  always  arrived  much  pressed 
for  breath,  owing  to  the  good  times  we  had  had  on  the  way. 

The  happiest  days  of  my  life  have  been  spent  in  this  little 
room.  Ouce  or  twice  the  teacher  caught  us  at  our  tricks,  — 
a  neighboring  pencil  and  me,  —  but  she  always  laid  the  blame 
to  the  boy,  so  it  didn't  worry  me  much.     One  morning  I 


COMPOSTTION-WllTTING.  309 

was  ol)liged  to  sovil)l)lo  on  a,  bit  of  paper,  "  she  has  got  her 
eye  ou  us."  It  didu't  seem  to  me  quite  respectful  to  use 
a  small  s  for  that  kind  of  a  "  she,"  and  I  didu't  approve  of 
using  ''  got  "  in  that  way  ;  hut  liow  was  I  to  help  myself? 

Ah,  well !  those  bright  days  are  over.  I  no  longer  enjoy 
myself,  but  am  tlirust  into  tlie  bottom  of  a  deep,  dark 
pocket,  in  company  with  a  knife,  a  few  nuts,  some  pieces  of 
craj'^on  to  pelt  boys  with  on  the  way  up-stairs,  and  a  sticky 
lump  of  gum  which  my  owner  chews  on  the  rare  occasions 
when  he  is  studying.  He  says  he  can  think  better  if  he 
moves  his  jaws.     Queer;  isn't  it? 

M}'  master  owns  a  brand-new  pencil  now.  I  heard  him 
say,  I  suppose  in  excuse  for  his  treatment  of  me,  "We're 
going  to  have  Examinations,  and  I've  got  to  cram.  So  I'll 
get  a  new  pencil  and  turn  over  a  new  leaf." 

Subjects  for  Imaginative  WmTiNa. 

Soliloquy  of  a  School  Clock. 
Story  of  a  Penny. 
The  Adventures  of  a  Pin. 
The  Lost  Diamond. 
What  the  Sparrows  Told. 
My  Experience  as  an  Agent. 
What  the  Wind  Sang. 
Story  of  an  Old  Shoe. 
Adventures  of  an  Apple. 
Adrift  on  the  Lake. 

nVE-MINUTE  EXEEOISES. 

Note.  —  The  following  exercises  are  intended  to  be  introduced 
as  frequently  as  possible  in  connection  with  daily  recitations. 
Some  of  them  may  require  more  than  five  minutes.  The  teacher 
will,  of  course,  extend  the  time  if  necessary. 

For  additional  exercises,  short  Paraphrases,  Abstracts,  and 
Anipliticatioiis  may  be  written. 


310  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

1.  Write  correctly,  as  regards  capitals,  spelling,  punc- 
tuation, and  arrangement,  a  selection  which  the  teacher 
has  written  upon  the  blackboaid  or  printed  by  the 
hektograph. 

Suggestion.  —  Let  the  selection  contain  quotations,  and 
let  it  be  written  without  punctuation  or  proper  arrangement. 

Ex.  Wliat  are  you  doing  here  asked  ni}'  guardian  trying 
to  learn  myself  to  read  and  write  said  krook  and  how  do  you 
get  on  slow  bad  returned  the  old  man  impatiently  its  hard  at 
my  time  of  life  it  would  be  easier  to  be  taught  b}^  some  one 
said  my  guardian  ay  but  they  might  teach  me  wrong  said  the 
old  man  with  a  wonderfully  suspicious  flash  of  his  eye  I  dont 
know  what  I  may  have  lost  by  not  being  learned  afore  I 
wouldnt  like  to  lose  auytliiug  by  being  learned  wrong  now. 

2.  Write  a  paragraph  from  the  teacher's  dictation. 

Suggestion.  —  This  may  be  an  extract  from  the  lesson,  or 
some  anecdote  suggested  by  recent  reading.  If  the  former, 
pupils  may  exchange  papers  and  correct  the  spelling,  punc- 
tuation, arrangement,  etc. 

3.  Write  in  good  English  what  you  know  about  some 
allusion  in  the  lesson. 

Suggestion.  —  This  exercise  is  doubl}'  valuable,  since  it 
tests  the  accuracy  of  the  pupil's  knowledge,  as  well  as  his 
power  of  expression.  For  a  review  lesson,  a  longer  time 
may  profitably  be  devoted  to  work  of  this  kind.  The  topics 
may  be  written  upon  cards  and  .  distributed  to  the  class. 
After  allowing  a  reasonable  time  for  writing,  let  the  pupils 
exchange  papers  or  change  places  at  the  blackboard  and 
correct  one  another's  work. 

Examples  of  Topics:  "Sword  of  Damascus,"  "Rare 
Aladdin's  wondrous  cave,"  syllogism,  the  Mayflowers,  "  tlie 
Truce  of  God,"  Luther,  mausoleum,   Mary  and   Elizabeth, 


COMPOSITION-WRTTTNG.  311 

Plymouth  Rock,  the  gardens  of  tlie  Ineas,  "  Pisa's  leaning 
niiraele,"  "  Bertha,  the  beautifnl  spinuer,"  ''Mouse-Tower 
on  the  Khiue,"  "  the  crazy  queen  of  Lebanon." 

4.  Write  sentences  containing  certain  specified  grammat- 
ical forms,  etc. 

Suggestion.  — Pupils  who  have  not  had  the  benefit  of  good 
elementary  ch'ill  in  English  construction  will  find  this  exer- 
cise somewhat  difficult.  For  such,  it  will  be  well  to  begin 
with  one  or  two  required  forms  and  gradually  increase  the 
number.  The  expressions  should  be  underlined  and  num- 
bered, as  they  need  not  be  introduced  in  the  order  specified. 

Ex.  AVrite  a  sentence  containing  (1)  the  name  of  an 
American  author,  (2)  the  title  of  one  of  his  best-known 
works,  (3)  a  relative  pronoun,  (i)  an  interjection,  (5)  a 
proper  adjective,  (6)  a  predicate  nominative,  (7)  a  verb  in 
the  passive  voice,  (8)  that  used  as  an  adjective,  and  again 
(9)   as  a  conjunction. 

Spechnen :  Ah!  I  see  that  you  are  readhig  "The  Sketch-Book," 

4  9  2 

which  is,  I  am  told,  tlie  masterpiece  of  tliat  pioneer  of  American 

3  7  6  8  5 

literature,  "Wasliington  Irving. 
1 

5.  AVrite  a  short  story  which  shall  include  a  given  list  of 
words,  not  neeessaril}'  in  the  order  mentioned. 

/Suggestion .  —  If  these  words  are  selected  by  the  teacher 
from  a  simple  story,  they  will  probably  be  such  as  tlie  pupil 
can  readil}'  combine.  The  original  story  may  be  read  to  the 
class  after  they  have  shown  what  they  can  do  with  the  words. 

Ex.  boy,  dog,  drowned,  school,  saved,  afternoon,  reward, 
truant,  river,  well-treated. 

One  Result  op  a  Jaxuary  Thaw. 

On  a  pleasant,  mild  afternoon  in  Jaiuiary,  a  hoy  took  a 
neighbor's  big  Newfoundland  dog  that  was  friendly  to  liim, 


312  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

and  went  to  the  river  to  skate.  In  order  to  do  this,  he  plaj'ed 
trnavt  from  school^  and  by  this  act  nearly  lost  his  life.  At 
this  time,  what  is  known  as  "the  January  thaw"  had  just 
set  in,  and  the  ice,  which  the  day  before  had  been  very  thick, 
had  melted  cousiderabl}-.  Not  noticing  this,  the  boy,  after 
skating  for  some  time  along  the  shore  started  on  a  trip  across 
the  river  followed  by  the  dog.  When  he  was  about  half-way 
across,  the  ice  suddenly  broke,  and  boy  and  dog  fell  in.  The 
boy,  being  exhausted  from  skating,  sank  immediately  and 
would  have  been  drowned,  had  not  the  good  dog,  who  had 
always  been  ivell-tre cited  by  the  boy,  brought  him  to  the 
surface  and  saved  his  life.  Carlo,  the  dog,  was  looked  upon 
as  a  hero.  His  master  was  the  forced  recipient  of  a  large 
reioard  for  the  dog's  services.  The  boy  learned  two  lessons 
that  day  that  were  of  great  importance  to  him  through  life. 

6.  Write  an  explanation  of  some  quotation,  telling  where 
it  may  be  found,  by  whom  it  was  said,  in  what  connec- 
tion, under  what  circumstances,  etc. 

Suggestion.  —  A  single  quotation  may  be  given  to  the 
whole  class,  or  quotations  written  on  cards  maj'  be  distrib- 
uted. 

Examples  of  quotations  which  may  be  used  for  this  exer- 
cise are  the  following  :  "  Not  Angles,  but  Angels  "  ;  "  Why 
don't  you  speak  for  yourself,  .Tohn?  "  ;  "  All  the  sons  were 
brave,  and  all  the  daughters  virtuous";  "Look,  you  can 
see  from  this  window  my  brazen  howitzer";  "You  too, 
Brutus !  " 

"  Do  not  fear !     Heaven  is  as  near 
...  by  water  as  by  land." 

"  Our  fathers  find  their  graves  in  our  short  memories." 

*'  If  you  wish  a  thing  to  be  well  done, 

You  must  do  it  vourself.  vou  must  not  leave  it  to  others.'' 


COMPOSITION-WUITING.  313 

7.  Write  upon  some  topic  of  local  or  current  interest. 

/Suggestion.  —  The  newspapers  will  furnish  an  abundance 
of  subjects.  Pupils  may  have  an  occasional  newspa^)er  ex- 
ercise, each  expressing  in  his  own  words  something  which  he 
has  read  in  the  papers.  The  teacher  should  direct  pupils  in 
their  choice  of  topics. 

Examples  of  Topics :  The  Graduating  Exercises  of  our 
School ;  Last  Night's  Fire  ;  The  Toboggan  Slide  :  Do  We 
Need  a  Public  Library  ?  A  Distinguished  Guest ;  Death  of  a 
Noted  Man  ;  Rumors  of  War ;  The  President's  Wedding ; 
A  Valuable  Discovery  ;  A  C3'clone,  etc.,  etc. 

Questions  bearing  upon  school  life  may  be  discussed  in 
this  way. 

Ex.  Why  do  scholars  dislike  composition-writing?  Is  it 
wrong  to  learn  my  lessons  on  Sunday  ?  Prompting ;  A  plea 
for  short  lessons  ;  Feelings  of  a  tard}^  pupil ;  What  I  think 
about  the  habit  of  chewing  gum ;  The  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  studying  alone. 

8.  Write  an  advertisement,  expressed  clearly  and  con- 
cisel}'. 

Suggestion. —  The  pupils  may  find  faulty  examples  and 
l)ring  them  to  the  class,  writing  upon  the  blackboard  the 
original  form  and  making  their  own  corrections,  the  teacher 
suggesting  further  improvements. 

Ex.  Wanted,  —  a  rent ;  state  particulars  as  to  size,  loca- 
tion, etc. 

For  sale, —  a  house,  a  horse  and  carriage,  groceries,  dry- 
goods,  etc. 

Lost,  —  a  ring,  money,  pocket-book,  cane,  keys,  dog,  etc. 

Wanted,  —  a  situation  as  clerk,  book-keeper,  gardener, 
teacher,  etc. 


314  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH, 

9.        Write  a  telegram,  limit  ten  words. 

Suggestion. — The  teacher  may  write  or  dictate  a  long  mes- 
sage, and  require  the  class  to  condense  it  within  the  assigned 
limits. 

Ex.  We  should  like  to  have  you  come  home  as  soon  as 
you  possibl}'  can  and  bring  Mary  with  you,  if  she  can  be 
spared.  Father  is  dangerousl}-  ill,  the  doctor  says.  Do 
come  as  soon  as  you  receive  this. 

Condensed :  Come  home  with  Mary  at  once.  Father  is 
dangerously  ill. 

10.  Reproduce  some  anecdote  bearing  upon  the  lesson. 

Suggestion.  —  This  nux}-  be  written  for  the  class  or  told  to 
them  by  the  teacher  or  by  a  pupil. 

Ex.  The  relations  between  the  Normans  and  the  Saxons. 
See  dialogue  between  Gurth  and  Wamba,  in  the  first  chapter 
of  "Ivanhoe."  Selections  from  "  Knickerbocker's  History 
of  New  York."  Stories  from  English  History,  referring  to 
characters  mentioned  in  "  Westminster  Abbey."  Anecdotes 
from  "  Old  Colony  Days,"  "  The  Blue  Laws,"  and  Abbott's 
"  Miles  Standish."  Anecdotes  from  the  biography  of  an 
author. 

11.  Describe  in  30ur  own  language  some  character  about 
whom  you  have  read. 

Ex.  Priscilla,  John  Alden,  Katriua,  Miles  Standish,  Hen- 
Van  Tassel,  Brom  Bones,  Ichabod  Crane,  Rip  Van  Winkle's 
Wife,  Uncle  Moses  AVhittier,  The  Quaker  Mother,  Miss 
Livermore. 

12.  Write  exercises  on  Figures  of  S[)eecii. 
Suggestion. — The  reading  lesson   for  the  day  will  com- 
monly furnish  abundant  material  for  work  of  this  kind.    The 


coMPOS^no^•  -writing.  31 5 

following  are   some    of  the  exercises  which  may  be  made 
interesting  and  profitable  :  — 

(a)  Write  Euphemisms  for  tlie  following  :  — ■ 

She  is  conceited.  He  is  a  liar  and  a  thief.  The  man 
was  intoxicated.     Your  daughter  is  lazy  and  stupid. 

Ex.  He  was  turned  out  of  office.  Euphemism :  He  was 
relieved  from  further  attendance  upon  the  arduous  duties  of 
the  position. 

(6)  Change  sentences  from  the  literal  form  to  the  meta- 
phorical. 
Ex.  When  we  are  older  we  shall  enjoy  the  results  of  the 
time  now  devoted  to  study.  Metaphorical :  In  life's  mid- 
summer we  shall  reap  the  harvest  from  the  seed  which  we  are 
now  sowing. 

(c)  Change  from  Metaphorical  to  Literal. 

Ex.  He  urged  some  tardy  loiterer  along  the  flowery  path 
of  knowledge. 

Literal :  He  whipped  some  lazy  boy  in  order  to  make  him 
study. 

(d)  Write  Similes  and  Metaphors  comparing  the  following 

subjects :  — 

Old  Age  —  Sunset;  Life  —  Ocean;  the  Body  —  Machine; 
Kindness  —  Dew  ;  Clouds  —  Snowdrifts  ;  Life  —  Race  ; 
Trouble  —  Storms  ;    Happiness  —  Sunshine. 

Ex.  Simile  :  Old  age  should  be  like  the  sunset  hour,  a 
beautiful,  peaceful  season  which  comes  between  the  cares  of 
the  day  and  the  sleep  of  the  night. 

Metaphor  :  He  had  already  reached  the  sunset  of  life,  and 
was  watching  its  brightness  gradually  fade  into  the  shades 
of  evening. 


316  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

(e)   Write  sentences  containing  Personification. 

Personify  b^*  the  nse  of  adjectives  or  pronouns :  winter, 
hope,  night,  ocean,  time,  earth,  snow. 

Ex.    Jolly  old  Winter  is  on  his  way  and  will  soon  be  here. 
Personify  by  use  of  verbs :    liberty,  health,  moon,  moun- 
tains, sky,  natiu'e,  grief,  sun,  beauty,  fashion. 

Ex.    Liberty  veiled  her  face  while  the  tyrant  spoke. 

(/)  Write  an  Apostrophe. 

A  poem  containing  apostrophe  may  be  read  to  the  class 
and  reproduced  by  them  before  they  attempt  to  write  an 
original  address. 

Subjects  :  To  the  Moon  ;  To  a  Daisy  ;  To  a  Brook  ;  To 
the  Ocean  ;  To  a  Sleeping  Child  ;  To  a  Dead  Bird ;  To  the 
Wind  ;  To  a  Mosquito  ;  To  Our  Dead  Heroes. 

(g)  Write  sentences  containing  Antithesis. 

The  following  are  subjects  which  maj'  be  contrasted :  Day 
and  Night ;  Summer  and  Winter  ;  Riches  and  Povert}^ ;  Idle- 
ness and  Industry ;  City  and  Country ;  Cheerfulness  and 
Grumbling;  I  Can't  and  PU  Try;  Work  and  Play;  Now 
and  Then. 


Second  Yeak. 
To  THE  Teacher : — 

The  Composition  work  of  the  first  year  may  be  reviewed  by 
having  the  pupils  write  an  occasional  Paraphrase,  Abstract,  or 
Amplification,  in  connection  with  the  second  year's  work  in  Litera- 
ture. The  biographies  of  Hawthorne,  Holmes,  and  Lowell  should 
be  reproduced  in  the  manner  suggested  for  that  of  Living.  There 
should  be  occasional  practice  in  Letter-writing.  The  main  object 
of  the  second  year's  work  in  Composition  should  be  to  teach  pupils 
to  think  for  themselves  and  to  arrange  their  tlioughts  in  clear  and 
logical  order.     It  is,  therefore,  recommended  that  throughout  the 


COMPOSlTION-WlilTlNG.  317 

second  year,  less  time  be  devoted  to  Reproduction  and  more  to 
Invention.  From  the  various  lists  of  Composition  Subjects,  the 
teacher  may  select  such  as  are  suitable  for  the  class,  leaving  the 
more  difficult  subjects  for  the  worlc  of  the  tliird  year. 

I.    COMPOSITIONS   UPON   OBJECTS. 

Ill  most  of  your  practice  in  Composition,  thus  far,  you 
Iiave  used  the  thoughts  of  others  as  the  basis  of  your 
work.  Now  you  must  learn  how  to  write  without  so 
much  help  of  this  kind.  It  is  well  to  begin  by  writing 
about  simple  things  concerning  which  you  have  some 
knowledge.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  find  out 
how  much  you  know  about  the  subject. 

Collection  of  Material.  —  As  soon  as  the  subject  is 
assigned,  you  should  begin  to  study  it,  noting  down 
your  thoughts  as  they  occur  to  you.  One  topic  will 
naturally  suggest  another ;  and  if  you  keep  the  subject 
in  mind  and  make  a  memorandum  of  each  thought,  you 
will  soon  be  surprised  to  find  that  you  have  more  mate- 
rial than  you  can  conveniently  use.  If  you  do  not 
make  a  note  of  your  thought  at  the  time  it  occurs  to 
you,  you  will  be  very  likely  to  forget  it  when  you  are 
ready  to  write.  As  far  as  possible,  depend  upon  your 
own  knowledge.  If  you  need  to  learn  more  than  you 
already  know  about  the  subject,  consult  authorities  con- 
cerning the  points  on  which  your  knowledge  is  deficient, 
but  never  copy  the  language  of  those  authorities.  Make 
the  information  so  thoroughly  your  own  that  you  can 
easily  express  it  in  your  own  words.  Then  make  brief 
notes  which  will  help  you  in  writing.  You  should,  if 
possible,  collect  your  material  several  days  before  writ- 
ing the  composition. 


318  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH.  " 

Suggestioyi.  —  For  the  first  exercise  of  this  kind,  let  the 
material  be  collected  b}'  the  class  aud  the  memoranda  written 
upon  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher,  in  the  order  in  which 
the  thoughts  are  presented.  The  teacher  may,  as  she  writes, 
offer  suggestions  as  to  the  best  form  of  topics.  She  may 
also  show  how  one  line  of  thought  leads  to  another,  aud  how 
a  topic  may  branch  into  various  sub-topics. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  such  an  Outline,  written  by 
the  teacher  from  the  dictation  of  the  class.  The  topics 
are  given  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  presented. 

Subject :  Paper. 

I.  Manufacture. 

1.  Where.  2.  How.  o.  By  whom.  4.  When.  5.  Ex- 
tent.    6.  Description  of  factory.     7.  Improvements. 

II.  CoMPusrriON. 

1.  Rags.  2.  vStraw.  3.  Manilla  hemp.  1.  Wood  fibre. 
5.  Rice.     6.  Bamboo.     7.  Old  paper. 

III.  Invention. 

I.  AVhen.     2.  By  whom.     3.  Where.     4.  Importance. 

IV.  Modern  Uses. 

1.  Common  uses.  2.  Car  wheels.  3.  Bottles.  4.  Pails 
and  pans.  5.  Collars  aud  cuff's.  6.  String.  7.  Tis- 
sue flowers.  8.  Lamp-shades.  i>.  Uses  in  China  and 
Japan.  10.  Boats.  11.  Carpets.  12.  Napkins.  13. 
Money.     14.  Gun-wads. 

V.  Api'eakance. 

1.  Sizes.  2.  Color.  3.  Ruling.  4.  Thickness,  5. 
Variety  of  aspects. 


COMPOSITION-WKITING.  319 

VI.    Kinds. 

1.  Fauuy  uote.  2.  Writing  i):uls.  3.  Wall.  4.  AVriq)- 
ping.  5.  Drawing.  0.  Card-board.  7.  Blotting.  <S. 
Tissue.  9.  Foreign  varieties.  10.  rarclunent.  11. 
Rice.  12.  Tracing.  K).  Filter.  14.  Papier  maclie. 
15.  Oiled.     10.  Carpet.      17.   Priutiug. 

Vn.     Al)VANTA(iES. 

1.  Variety  of  uses.  2.  Lightness.  S.  Strength.  4. 
Cheapness.  5.  Use  of  waste  material.  6.  Conven- 
ience.    7.    Warmth. 

VIII.  Earliest  Forms. 

1.  Papyrus.  2.  Chinese,  o.  Substitutes  for  paper  — 
wax  tablets,  clay  tablets,  leaves,  stones,  etc. 

IX.  Origin  of  the  Word. 

1.    Derivative  meaning.      2.    Present  application. 

X.  (Suggested  by  the  teacher).    Curiosities. 

1.  Longest  roll  of  paper  ever  made.  2.  Experiments  to 
test  the  strength  of  paper.  3.  Describe  a  collection 
of  interesting  relics  made  of  paper ;  for  exami)le,  a 
papyrus  roll  taken  from  the  wrappings  of  a  mummy  ; 
a  Japanese  fan  with  a  romantic  history  ;  a  leaf  from  an 
illuminated  missal  made  by  Saxon  moiiks ;  a  wasp's 
nest ;  a  costume  worn  at  a  paper  carnival,  etc.  4. 
Mother's  Rag-Bag — what  goes  into  it,  and  what  comes 
out.  Perhaps  you  can  make  a  humorous  composition, 
by  exercising  a  little  ingenuity  in  the  arrangement  of 
your  lists  of  articles,  trying  to  have  as  great  a  variety 
as  possible.  To  make  it  more  fanciful,  you  might  have 
for  the  title  of  your  sketch  '■'•  The  Enchanted  Bag,"  and 
leave  the  readei'  to  guess  what  kind  of  a  bag  you  mean. 


320 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


Selection  and  Arrangement  of  Material.  —  When 
you  liave  thought  out  a  subject  in  this  way  and  made  a 
list  of  the  topics  which  have  occurred  to  you,  you  will 
realize  at  once  that  you  have  enough  material  for  a 
dozen  compositions.  You  inust,  therefore,  decide  which 
of  the  topics  to  select  and  in  what  order  to  consider 
them.  A  single  topic  with  its  subdivisions  will  often 
furnish  abundant  material ;  as,  for  example,  in  the 
above  Outline,  any  one  of  the  topics  except  the  ninth. 

Writing-  the  Composition.  —  Never  attempt  to  write 
a  composition  of  this  kind  without  first  making  a  com- 
plete Outline.  When  your  material  is  carefully  selected 
and  arranged,  the  writing  of  a  composition  will  be  com- 
paratively easy.  Take  one  topic  at  a  time  and  develop 
it  in  the  best  words  at  your  command.  If  necessary, 
write  and  re-write  that  one  topic  until  you  are  sure  that 
you  cannot  improve  upon  the  expression.  In  this  man- 
ner, develop  the  entire  outline  and  neatly  copy  the 
exercise. 

The  following  subjects  may  be  outlined  and  developed 
in  the  manner  suggested  for  the  subject  "'  Paper  " :  — 


Almanacs. 

Grass. 

Slang. 

Pencils. 

Umbrellas. 

Flowers. 

Homes. 

Tongues. 

Time-pieces. 

Cats. 

Agents. 

Eyes. 

Words. 

Dogs. 

Fashions. 

Ears. 

Books. 

Windows. 

Glass. 

Writing  ^lachines 

( )rnaments. 

Hands. 

Candy. 

]\Iantel-pieces. 

Calendars. 

Doors. 

Xames. 

Birds'  Nests. 

Shells. 

Trees. 

Letters. 

Advertisements. 

Neckties. 

Hats. 

Signs. 

Handkerchiefs. 

Inventions. 

Heroes. 

Houses. 

Fireplaces. 

Games. 

Bells. 

Lamps. 

The  Indians. 

Giggiers. 

Grumblers. 

Iron. 

Pictures. 

roNn'osiTiox-\vi;TTixr;.  321 

11.    XARRATIVK   OR   STORY. 

In  this  kind  of  composition,  the  writer  rehates  some 
incident  or  series  of  incidents.  We  shall  consider  three 
special  forms  of  Xarratives :  — 

1.  Personal  Narratives,  founded  npon  incidents  in 
the  writer's  own  experience. 

2.  Historical  Narratives,  founded  upon  events  in 
history. 

3.  Fiction  or  Romance,  founded  upon  imaginary 
incidents. 

Personal  Narratives.  —  As  the  easiest  form  of  the 
Personal  Narrative,  you  may  now  write  some  true  story 
about  yourself:  something  which  you  have  seen  or 
done.  Remember  that  the  interest  of  such  a  story  de- 
pends almost  as  much  upon  the  wa}-  in  which  it  is  told 
as  upon  the  incident  itself.  Try  to  make  it  fresh  and 
interesting  instead  of  trite  and  commonplace.  Remem- 
ber that,  in  order  to  do  this,  you  need  not  use  "  big- 
words  "  or  adorn  your  style  with  elaborate  figures.  In 
language,  as  in  dress,  a  simple  style  is  often  the  most 
elegant.  The  stories  which  make  the  strongest  impres- 
sion upon  us  —  whose  humor  awakens  our  mirth  and 
whose  pathos  brings  the  tears  to  our  eyes  —  are  com- 
monly those  which  are  told  in  simple,  unaffected  style. 
Be  clear,  exact,  and  truthful  in  all  your  statements. 
Aim  to  tell  the  story  in  such  a  way  that  the  incident 
shall  be  vividly  presented  to  the  reader.  The  frequent 
use  of  "  I "  in  a  personal  narrative  makes  the  writer 
appear  egotistical.  This  effect  may  often  be  avoided  by 
introducing  a  part  of  the  story  in  conversational  form. 


322  LESRONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Srr.jF.CT.s  FOR  Personal  Nai;i!ativks. 

How  I  Ran  xVway.  Sitting  for  a  Picture. 

An  Eventful  Day.  Our  Family  Picnic. 

A  Journey.  JNIy  First  Gunning  Expedition. 

Making  Believe.  Learning  to  Swim. 

A  Visit  to  the  Country.  J\Iy  First  and  Last  Cigar. 

Keeping  a  Diary.  Our  Family  Cat. 

Some  of  My  Treasures.  My  First  Day  at  School. 

Afraid  of  the  Dark.  My  First  Impressions  of  Death 

Having  a  Tooth  Pulled.  One  Saturday  Afternoon. 

A  True  Story  of  a  Dog.  My  Bicycle  and  I. 

'NA'hat  I  Used  to  Think.      ,  My  First  Pair  of  Skates. 

]\Iy  Experience  in  Housekeeping.    My  First  Disobedience. 

l^ecollections  of  School  Days.  The  Story  of  Our  Hired  ]\Ian. 

A  Ride  in  the  Street  Car.  My  Best  Day  Last  Vacation. 

Some  of  My  Early  Amusements.     A  Fishing  Excursion. 

What  Happened  on  JNIy  AVay  to  School. 

My  First  Experience  with  the  Telephone. 

My  Earliest  Recollections  of  Sunday  School. 

My  First  Attack  of  Homesickness. 

Story  of  a  Winter  Evening. 


'O' 


Historical  Narratives.  —  The  Historical  Narrative  is, 
of  necessity,  a  reproduction.  It  is  commonly  either  an 
Abstract  or  an  Am})lification  of  what  has  been  told  by 
others.  Imaginary  incidents  are  often  combined  with 
liistorical  events,  making  what  is  called  an  Historical 
Romance.  Many  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "  Waverley 
Novels  "  are  of  this  character.  So,  too,  are  James  Fen- 
imore  Cooper's  stories  of  Indian  life.  In  writing  an 
abstract  of  a  story  taken  from  history,  be  careful  to 
select  the  most  important  incidents  and  to  make  a  clear 
and  connected  outline.  In  amplifying,  be  sure  that  the 
details  which  your  imagination  supplies  are  in  keeping 
with  the  scene,  the  time,  the  characters,  and  the  spirit 


COMPOSITIOX-W'KITING.  323 

of  the  story  which  you  are  rehitiiig.  If  yovi  invent 
<!onversations,  let  tlie  language  be  such  as  would  he 
natural  and  appropriate  for  the  persons  whom  you 
imagine  to  be  talking. 

Suggest  ion.  —  The  teacher  may  relate  the  bare  facts  of 
some  liistorical  incident  and  then  read  to  the  class  an  Ami)li- 
fication  of  the  same  story.  For  example,  one  of  the  stories 
from  Hawthorne's  ''  Grandfather's  Chair  "  or  a  good  histor- 
icid  sketcli  from  the  "St.  Nicholas."  Point  out  the  merits 
of  the  Keproduction  and  call  attention  to  any  incongruities 
or  anachronisms  that  may  appear.  Require  pn[)ils  to  make 
first  an  (Outline  of  the  narrative,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
proper  relations  of  par^s. 

Subjects  for  Historical  Narratives. 

The  Lauding  of  the  Pilgrims.    The  Story  of  the  Charter  Oak. 

The  Boston  Tea-Party.  Story  of  One  of  tlie  Salem  Witches. 

The  Captm-e  of  Andre.  The  Fountain  of  Perpetual  Youth. 

The  Battle  of  Lexington.  Tlie  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Regicides.  King  Alfred  aud  the  Cakes. 

The  Flight  of  INIahoniet.  Pocahontas. 

A  Story  of  Venice.  The  Crusade  of  the  Children, 

r^xecution  of  Joan  of  Arc.  Coeur-de-Lion  and  the  Minstrel. 

The  Princes  in  the  Tower.  The  Taking  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus. 

A  Gladiatorial  Combat.  Story  of  a  Child  Queen. 

The  Battle  of  AVaterloo.  Death  of  Julius  Ca?sar. 

The  Battle  of  Hastings.  The  Battle  of  Gettysburg. 

The  Destruction  of  Pompeii.  Cornelia  and  Her  Jewels. 

A  Boy  Hero.  The  Story  of  Paul  Revere. 

Licidents  from  the  lives  of  AYashington,  Lincoln,  Grant,  aud 
Garfield ;  of  Xero,  Julius  Caesar,  Cleopatra,  Charlemagne,  Queen 
Elizabeth,  IMary  Queen  of  Scots,  Napoleon,  and  other  charactei-s. 

Fiction.  —  You  are  now  required  to  exercise  your 
imagination,  depending  entirely  upon  your  own  taste 


324  LESSONS    IX   ENGLTSIT. 

and  ingenuity  in  making  up  the  story.  Before  attempt- 
ing to  write,  you  should  malve  a  "  plot "  or  plan  of  the 
story.  Do  not  allow  your  imagination  to  take  too  wild 
flights.  Except  in  a  fairy  story,  confine  the  incidents 
within  the  realm  of  probability. 

Svggestion.  — Select  some  story  with  which  all  are  familiar ; 
as,  for  example,  "  Cinderella,"  "  Blue  Beard."  '•  Little  Red- 
Riding-Hood,"  or  "Robinson  Crusoe,"  and  let  the  pupils 
analyze  it,  so  as  to  understand  what  is  meant  l)v  a  '•  plot." 
Requii'e  them  to  prepare  a  plot  of  each  story  which  the}'  write. 

Exercise  iu  Fiction.  — ■  As  the  first  exercise  of  this 
kind,  you  may  take  one  of  the  nursery  rhymes  and 
invent  a  story  which  shall  have  the  same  general  plot, 
but  be  in  detail  as  different  as  possible  from  the  orig- 
inal. Some  of  the  rhymes  which  may  be  used  in  this 
way  are  the  following  :  — 

Old  Mother  Hubbard.  Little  .lack  Horner. 

Little  Tommy  Tucker.  The  Queen  of  Hearts. 

.rack  and  Jill.  The  Man  in  the  Moon. 

The  Old  Woman  in  the  Shoe.        Mistress  Mary,  Quite  Contrary. 

The  Old  Woman  Who  Lived  luider  the  Hill. 

The  Bachelor  Who  AVent  to  Ivondon  to  Get  Himself  a  Wife. 

Subjects  for  Fictitious  Narratives. 

Story  of  a  Fan.  Xan's  Crazy  Quilt. 

The  Wishing  Stone.  I^ost  at  Sea. 

The  Land  of  Nod.  The  Enchanted  Garden. 

A  Kemarkable  Dream  Adventures  of  an  Umbrella. 

The  Magic  Ring.  The  IMirror's  Reflections. 

The  Brook's  Story.  Story  of  a  Cedar  Chest. 

The  Lost  Letter.  The  Blackboard's  Complaint. 

Story  of  a  String  of  Beads.  How  Johnny  Went  to  See  Jumbo. 


(^o>iposiTi()N-\vi;rnxci.  32;") 

The  Sad  Fate  of  a  Wayward  Chicken. 

Legend  of  a  Roy  Who  Was  Never  in  IMiscliief. 

What  Came  of  Borrowing  a  Hammer. 

A  Hero  Unknown  to  Fame. 

A  Letter  from  a  High  School  IVFouse. 

Old  Father  Time's  Treasure  House. 

AV^hat  Came  of  Robbing  a  Bird's  Nest. 

The  Man  Who  Never  Smiled. 

Soliloquy  of  a  School  Desk. 

Why  Toads  Have  No  Tails. 

The  (xirl  Who  Had  "  Xo  Time." 

The  Little  Girl  Who  Wouldn't  Say  "  Please." 

Recipe  for  Composition  Cake. 

What  the  Wind  Sang. 

The  Land  Where  the  Lost  Things  Go. 

How  Jack  Learned  the  ]Multi2-)lication  Table. 

A  Visit  to  the  King's  Palace. 

How  I  Caught  a  Burglar. 

A  Day  with  Hawthorne  at  the  Old  Manse. 

How  Samuel  Alexander  Persimmon  Was  Cured  of  a  Bad  Habit. 

HL   DESCRIPTION. 

Description  is  a  more  difficult  kind  of  composition 
tlian  any  which  you  have  yet  attempted.  It  aims  to 
portray  objects  in  sucli  a  manner  that  they  shall  appear 
to  the  reader  exactly  as  they  do  to  the  observer.  A 
good  description  is  a  clear,  vivid,  and  accurate  word- 
picture.  If  you  notice  how  much  your  enjoyment  of  a 
book  depends  upon  the  author's  power  to  make  things 
seem  real,  you  will  understand  how  important  it  is  to 
practise  this  species  of  composition.  In  our  study  of 
Description,  we  shall  consider  the  following  varieties  :  — 

1.  Description  of  Objects. 

2.  Description  of  Scenery. 
S.    Description  of  Persons. 


326  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Description  of  Objects.  —  In  writing  Descriptions  of 
Objects,  observe  the  following  directions:^ — 

1.  Select  a  subject  which  is  attractive  and  about 
which  you  are  well  informed  or  which  your  imagination 
can  easily  develop. 

2.  Study  the  subject  carefully,  noting  all  the  impor- 
tant points.  You  cannot  expect  to  give  others  a  clear 
and  correct  idea  of  the  object  which  you  are  describing, 
unless  you  see  it  clearly  for  yourself.  It  is  well  to 
make  a  list  of  the  elements  which  you  wish  to  combine 
in  your  Description. 

3.  Having  chosen  the  most  important  elements, 
arrange  them  in  such  an  order  as  to  make  the  descrip- 
tion most  effective. 

4.  Combine  the  elements,  aiming  to  make  a  clear ^ 
vivid.,  truthful.,  and  complete  picture. 

Caution.  —  Remember  that  the  vividness  of  youv  Descrip- 
tion depends  largely  upon  the  language  which  yon  use.  Let 
your  adjectives  be  carefully  chosen  and  not  too  numerous. 
Remember  that  particular  terms  are  far  more  graphic  than 
general  ones.  For  example,  if  you  write  "A  tree  stood  by 
the  house,"  your  word-picture  is  indistinct ;  because  you 
have  not  told  what  species  of  tree  it  is  and  what  sort  of  a 
house  3'^ou  have  in  mind.  Notice  how^  the  picture  changes  if 
we  substitute  particular  terms  :  — 

{(i)   A  great  elm  spread  its  protecting  arms  over  the  cottage. 
{h)   Against    the    background  of   the   weather-beaten   roof 

gleamed   the   scarlet  berries  of  a  mountain  ash  that 

stood  beside  the  parsonage, 
(c)    Near  the  south  window  of  the  farm  house  grew  an  old 

apple-tree,  which  was    now  pink  with  blossoms  and 

in  which  a  robin  was  building  her  nest. 


rOMPOSITIOX-WRITIXG. 


327 


(<?)     In  front  of  the  ruined  honse  a  single  tall  poplar  stood 
like  a  sentinel. 

Suggestion. — The  teacher  may  read  to  the  class  specimens 
of  fine  description,  pointing  out  the  merits  of  each.  Then 
the  pupils  may  read  or  recite  in  class  bits  of  description 
which  they  have  selected  from  the  work  in  Literature  or  from 
other  sources.  Do  not  disconrage  them  by  requiring  them 
to  write  long  descriptions  at  first. 

EXERCISE. 

Write  descriptions  from  the  following  sentences,  substi- 
tuting particular  terms  for  the  general  ones.  ]\Iake  several 
2)ictures  from  each  sentence,  having  as  great  variety  as  pos- 
sible. 

1.  At  the  foot  of  the  rock  was  a  spring. 

2.  Flowers  bloomed  beside  the  brook. 

3.  A  storm  came  on  at  nightfall. 

4.  The  cave  was  on  the  mountain. 

5.  The  box  contained  mauv  interestiuo-  relics. 


Subjects  for  Descriptions  of  Objects. 


A  Country  Store. 

A  Ruined  Mill. 

A  Deserted  House. 

An  Old-fashioned  Kitchen. 

My  Grandma's  Garden. 

An  Old  Graveyard. « 

An  Art  Gallery. 

A  Museum. 

A  Country  Church. 

The  Abode  of  Poverty. 

The  State  House. 

An  Ocean  Steamer. 

My  Pet  Bird. 

A  Castle. 


A  School-room. 

The  Old  Garret. 

A  Prison. 

A  Factory. 

Aunt  Maria's  "  Best  Room. 

A  Blacksmith  Shop. 

Grandfather's  Barn. 

A  Beautiful  Home. 

A  Lawyer's  Office. 

A  Library. 

My  Ideal  House. 

A  Printing  Office. 

A  Post  Office. 

A  Cathedral. 


328  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Description  of  Scenery.  —  In  writing  descriptions  of 
natural  scenery,  you  should  aim  to  make  the  picture 
appear  to  the  reader  as  beautiful  and  interesting  as  it 
does  to  you.  For  this  reason,  it  is  best  to  begin  by 
describing  some  scene  with  which  you  are  very  familiar 
or  which  has  made  a  strong  impression  upon  you.  You 
must  first  be  able  to  tell  what  are  the  most  important 
features  of  the  scene  and  to  give  a  clear  idea  of  their 
arrangement  and  their  relations  to  one  another.  To 
this  end,  you  must  cultivate  the  habit  of  careful  obser- 
vation. It  is  an  excellent  practice  to  keep  a  note-book 
in  which  to  record  such  facts  and  impressions  as  you 
would  be  likely  to  forget  when  the  scene  is  no  longer 
before  your  eyes.  Hawthorne's  Note-Books  show  how- 
good  an  observer  he  was,  and  what  use  he  made  of  his 
observations. 

Importance  of  Little  Things.  —  The  charm  of  a 
description  consists  largely  in  the  author's  attention 
to  little  things,  such  as  would  escape  the  notice  of  the 
careless  observer.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  wishing  to  write  a 
graphic  description  of  a  ruined  abbey,  thought  it  worth 
w  hile  to  take  a  long  journey  on  horseback,  on  purpose 
to  see  for  himself  what  species  of  flowers  and  weeds 
were  growing  about  the  ruin. 

Suggestion.  —  Lot  the  pupils  read  or  recite  in  class  choice 
bits  of  description,  pointing  out  any  special  features  of 
excellence.  Subjects  for  description  will  be  furnished  bj' 
this  exercise.  If  the  quotation  describes  a  valley,  it  may 
suggest  to  the  pupils  how  to  describe  one  which  they  liave 
seen,  etc. 


COMPOSlTlON-WltlTING.  329 

EXEEOISE. 

Describe  a  view  from  your  window,  giving  a  clear  and 
tntthful  represeutatiou  of  what  you  see.  Jn  addition  to  the 
features  wliich  are  visible,  you  may  properly  mention  the 
sounds  which  you  hear  and  the  thoughts  which  are  awakened 
by  the  scene.  You  may  mention  also  the  circumstances 
under  wliich  you  make  your  observations.  You  should  first 
make  a  plan,  showing  what  features  you  intend  to  embody 
in  your  description  ;  as,  for  example  :  — 

Time.  —  Early  evening  in  August.    „ 

Circumstances.  —  Twilight  of  a  hot  day,  the  full  moon 
just  rising. 

Features  of  Scenery.  —  Hills  in  the  distance,  sky,  trees, 
shrubbery. 

Artijicial  Features.  —  Buildings,  etc. 

Living  Beings.  —  Birds,  bats,  insects,  etc.  (Avoid  use 
of  general  terms.) 

Sounds.  —  Children  at  play,  barking  of  a  dog,  crying 
infant,  etc. 

Persons.  —  Tell  what  people  you  see  and  what  they  are 
doing. 

ReJlectio)is.  —  (These  may  be  interwoven  with  the  several 
parts  of  the  description,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  sug- 
gested to  the  mind.) 

Describe  any  beautiful  place  which  you  have  visited.  — 
During  your  vacation  journeys,  you  should  take  notes  con- 
cerning what  interests  you.  These  notes  will  help  you  to 
write  clear,  vivid,  and  accurate  descriptions. 

Subjects  for  Descriptions  ov  Scenery. 

A  Sunset  Scene.  Description  of  a  Waterfall. 

A  Winter  Night.  The  Loveliest  Spot  I  Know. 

View  From  a  Hill-top.  (Jramlpa's  Teii-.\cre  Lot. 


330  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

A  Rainy  Day  in  the  Country.        Moonlight  on  the  Lake. 

"When  tlie  Woods  Turn  Brown."  Description  of  a  Cave. 

A  Snow  Scene.  Sunrise  among  the  Mountains. 

Ocean  Pictures.  A  Woodland  Scene 

A  Country  Road.  A  Thunder  Storm. 

A  Rainbow.  The  Morning  after  an  Ice  Storm. 

A  Beautiful  Landscape.  Description  of  a  Valley. 

A  Mountain  Stream.  A  Strange  Freak  of  Nature. 

A  Storm  at  Sea.  A  Tropical  Forest. 

A  Volcano.  Twilight. 

Pictures  of  a  Place  at  Different  Seasons. 

What  I  W«Duld  Paint  if  I  Were  an  Artist. 

Description  of  Persons.  —  You  are  now  to  liave 
some  practice  in  the  most  difficult  kind  of  Descri[)tiuii. 
In  this,  as  in  the  varieties  wliich  you  have  already 
studied,  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  little  things. 
The  best  way  of  learning  how  to  describe  persons  is  to 
notice  how  others  do  it  and  then  to  stud}^  the  personal 
descriptions  which  seem  to  you  most  grapliic. 

Suggestion. — Read  to  the  class  some  of  Dickens's  pevsonjil 
descriptions,  selecting  a  variety'  of  characters.  Call  atten- 
tion to  the  little  touches  by  which  he  brings  out  the  person- 
ality of  each.  Let  the  pupils  select  good  personal  descri[)- 
tious  and  tell  why  they  are  good,  showing  which  of  the 
details  furnish  the  most  efTective  touches  in  the  painting  of 
the  portrait. 

Writing-  a  Personal  Description.  —  Make  a  study 
of  the  peculiarities  and  characteristics  of  the^  person 
whom  you  wish  to  describe.  Notice  what  are  the 
strongest  points  of  individuality,  and  reproduce  those 
in  your  sketch.  Do  not  be  disagreeably  personal,  if  you 
choose   your  subject  from  your  own   list  of  acquaint- 


COMPOSITION-WRITING. 


331 


ances.  Remember  that  a  portrait-painter  should  al- 
ways place  his  subject  in  the  best  possible  light.  Some 
of  the  points  which  you  may  have  iu  your  outline  are 
the  following  :  — 

Form,  features,  mauuers,  attitudes,  dress,  habits  ;  pecu- 
liarities of  gait,  speech,  and  expression  ;  habits  of  thought ; 
disposition  ;  traits  of  character ;  intellectual  and  moral  capac- 
ities ;  influence  ;  usefulness. 


Subjects  fok  Personal  Descriptions. 


My  First  Teacher. 

Our  Johnny. 

Some  of  Our  Neighbors. 

"  That  Mr.  Jones." 

The  Queen  of  Our  Kitchen. 

A  Miser. 

The  Meanest  Man  in  Town. 

A  Homely,  Good  AYoman. 

A  Beautiful  Old  Lady. 

Peculiar  People. 

The  "Wise  Professor. 


An  Old  Sea-Captain. 

My  Most  Intimate  Friend. 

Baby  Ruth. 

The  Boy  of  the  Period. 

The  Girl  of  the  Period. 

Our  Doctor. 

Our  Minister. 

The  Children  in  Our  Block. 

A  Family  of  Gypsies. 

A  Tramp. 

John  Chinaman. 


IV.     DESCRIPTION   AND   NARRATIVE   COMBINED. 


You  have  doubtless  noticed  in  your  reading  tliat 
Description  and  Narrative  seldom  occur  alone.  In  the 
treatment  of  many  of  the  subjects  included  in  the  pre- 
ceding lists,  Descrij^tion  and  the  various  forms  of  Nar- 
rative may  be  combined  with  good  effect.  No  special 
rides  can  be  given  for  this  kind  of  writing.  In  general, 
aim  to  have  a  pleasing  variety  in  composition  and  a 
natural  an<l  interesting  style. 


332  LESSONS    IX   ENGLISH. 

Additional  Subjects. 

Experiences  in  a  Street-Car.  An  Editor's  Trials. 

Story  of  Three  Old  Maids.  Blunders. 

A  Fishing  Excursion.  Story  of  a  Beggar. 

Faces.  Calling  a  Boy  in  the  Morning. 

My  First  Experience  in  Teaching.    Story  of  a  Soldier. 

A  Japanese  Girl.  Decoration  Day. 

A  Visit  to  a  Battle-Field.  Christmas. 

Auctions.  Thanksgiving. 

Scene  at  a  Railway  Station.  My  Walk  to  School. 

What  Happened  This  Morning.      A  Ride  across  the  Prairie. 

Rambles  by  the  Roadside.  Street  Scenes. 

]My  Favorite  Picture.  Trials  of  a  Deaf  Person. 

My  Little  Brother.  An  Hour  on  the  Toboggan  Slide. 

A  City  Boy's  Visit  to  the  Country. 

Revelations  of  an  Autograph  Album. 

Adventures  of  Diogenes  the  Second. 

How  to  Choose  Composition  Subjects.  —  Teachers 
sometimes  find  it  difficult  to  select  interesting  subjects 
for  compositions.  One  of  the  advantages  of  combining 
Composition  work  with  the  study  of  Literature  is  that 
many  lines  of  thought  and  investigation  are  thus 
opened,  affording  fresh  and  varied  topics  for  writing. 
Some  of  the  most  successful  teachers  of  Composition 
are  in  the  habit  of  assigning  subjects  which  are  sug- 
gested to  them  by  books  and  Ijy  newspaper  and  maga- 
zine articles.  It  is  strongly  recommended  that  the 
studies  in  Literature  be  made  the  basis  of  the  practice 
in  Composition. 

The  following  subjects,  suggested  by  the  reading  of 
"Snow-Bound"  and  the  Prelude  to  "Among  the  Hills," 
will  give  an  idea  of  the  way  in  which  teachers  may 
make  the  Literature  lessons  doubly  valuable. 


COMPOSIT  lUN-WKITING. 


333 


Subjects  Suggested  by  "Snow-Bound." 


An  Old-Fashioned  Winter. 

Farm-Life  in  Winter. 

A  New  England  Barn. 

A  Snow  Storm. 

The  Masquerade.     (Snow.) 

Snow  Flakes. 

New  England  Character. 

Winter  Sports. 

Aladdin's  Cave. 

Woods  in  Winter. 

The  Brook. 

A  Wood  Fire. 

Description  of  a  New  England 

Kitchen. 
An  Old-Fashioned  Fireplace. 
Moonlight  on  the  Snow. 
Silhouettes. 
Pictures  in  the  Fire. 
"  No  Place  like  Home." 
"  The  Days  that  are  No  More." 
Mercy  Warren. 
The  Salt  Marshes. 
The  Isles  of  Shoals. 
Witchcraft. 
Making  Hay  on  the  Salt 

Meadows. 
A  Day  on  the  Beach. 
The  Quaker  ]\Iother. 
The  Indians  at  Haverhill. 
Stories  of  the  Quakers. 
Studies  of  Nature. 
Different  Ways  of  Looking  at 

Common  Things. 
An  Old  Man's  Memories. 
Looking  Back. 
The  Truce  of  God. 


What  I  Know  about  Birds. 

Telling  Stories  by  the  Fire. 

Uncle  Moses. 

A  Charming  Old  Maid. 

]\Iercy  Hussey's  Romance. 

A  Husking  Bee. 

An  Apple  Bee. 

Influence  of  Woman. 

The  Elder  Sister. 

Different  Views  of  Death. 

Story  of  a  Braided  Mat. 

The  Harebell. 

Elizabeth  Whittier. 

The  Schools  of  Long  Ago. 

Boarding  Around. 

The  Schoolmaster. 

The  Guest. 

Animal  Types  of  Human  Beings, 

"  The  Crazy  Queen  of  Lebanon." 

Charity  for  the  Faults  of  Others. 

A  Bull's-Eye  Watch. 

Sounds  of  a  Winter  Night. 

Winter  Sleep  and  Summer  Dreams 

Breaking  the  Roads. 

A  Country  Doctor. 

A  Kind  Neighbor. 

Almanacs. 

The  Village  Newspaper. 

The  Pleasure  of  Receiving 

Letters. 
A  Vendue. 
Influence  of  Newspapers  upon 

People  in  the  Country. 
The  Angel  of  Memory. 
The  Century  Plant. 


334 


LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


Suggested  by  the  Prelude  to  "Among  the  Hills. 


The  Gardens  of  the  Incas. 
The  Cardinal  Flower. 
A  Harvest  Scene. 
Heliotrope  and  Mignonette. 
The  Nobility  of  Labor. 
Two  Old  Homesteads.     (Con- 
trast.) 
Grandma's  Sampler. 
Blind  in  the  Midst  of  Beauty. 


Golden  Rod. 

An  August  Noon. 

Riding  on  the  Load. 

What  is  Chivalry? 

The  Hard  Side  of  a  Farmer's 

Life. 
"  The  Best  Room." 
Parlor  Ornaments. 
The  Mystery  of  the  Woods. 


Pictures  from  Memory's  Sketch  Book. 


BIOGKAI'HICAL   SKETCHES.  335 


CHAPTEE   XL 

BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES. 
WASHINGTON   IRVING. 

Born  at  New  York,  April  3,  1783. 

Died  at  "Sunnyside,"  Irvington,  N.Y.,  Nov.  28,  1859. 

Home  Circle.  —  William  Irving,  the  father  of  Wash- 
ington Irving,  was  a  native  of  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands. 
His  early  life  was  spent  upon  the  sea,  but  soon  after 
his  marriage  he  gave  up  his  sea-faring  life  and  came  to 
America.  He  became  a  prosperous  merchant  in  New 
York  City.  Three  children  died  in  infanc}^  but  live 
sons  and  three  daughters  grew  up  to  manhood  and 
womanhood.  Washington  Irving  was  the  youngest  of 
the  eleven  children. 

Boyhood.  —  Irving  was  born  just  at  the  close  of  the 
Revolutionary  War.  When  the  parents  came  to  decide 
upon  a  name  for  their  son,  the  mother  remarked, 
"  Washington's  work  is  ended,  and  the  child  shall  be 
named  after  him."  When  Washington  became  Presi- 
dent, he  was  one  day  entering  a  shop  in  New  York, 
when  he  was  accosted  by  the  Scotch  nurse  employed  by 
the  Irvings.  "  Please,  your  honor,"  said  the  excited 
woman,  "  here's  a  bairn  was  named  after  you."  The 
great  man  laid  his  hand  upon  the  child's  head  and  gave 
him  his  blessing. 

Irving  was  a  mischievous  boy,  but  he  was  so  strictly 


336  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

brought  up  that  he  used  to  say,  "  I  was  led  to  believe 
that  everything  that  was  pleasant  was  wicked."  When- 
ever he  could  spare  the  money,  he  enjoyed  the  forbidden 
pleasures  of  the  theatre,  returning  home  just  in  time 
for  family  prayers.  When  these  were  over,  he  would 
go  to  his  room,  creep  out  of  the  window  and  down  the 
roof  to  a  back  alley  and  hurry  to  the  theatre  in  time 
for  the  after-piece. 

School  Life.  —  Until  he  was  sixteen  years  old,  Irving 
attended  various  private  schools,  but  he  was  not  a  prom- 
ising pupil.  He  liked  to  wander  about  the  wharves 
and  watch  the  ships  going  out  to  sea  much  better  than 
he  liked  to  learn  his  lessons.  Though  not  fond  of  study, 
Irving  early  showed  a  remarkable  taste  for  reading.  At 
the  age  of  eleven,  books  of  travel  were  his  chief  delight. 
His  talent  for  scribbling  was  so  well  recognized  that 
the  other  boys  used  to  hire  him  to  write  compositions 
for  them,  paying  him  by  doing  his  examples  in  arith- 
metic. It  had  been  the  intention  of  his  parents  to  send 
him  to  Columbia  College,  where  his  brothers  Peter  and 
John  were  students.  The  idea  was  abandoned,  owing 
partly  to  the  lad's  delicate  health,  but  more  to  his  indif- 
ference to  education.  In  after  years,  Irving  deeply  re- 
gretted that  he  did  not  improve  his  early  opportunities. 

Law  Studies.  —  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  entered  a 
law  office,  where  his  brother  John  was  studying.  Here 
he  spent  two  years,  but  made  little  advance  in  his 
studies.  A  third  year  was  passed  in  the  same  way  in 
another  office.  In  1802,  he  became  a  clerk  in  the  law 
office  of  Josiah  Ogden  Hoffman,  who  used  to  speak  of 
him  as  a  heedless  student.      Having  been  interrupted 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  337 

ill  his  law  studies  by  ill  health  and  by  a  journey  abroad, 
he  was  not  admitted  to  the  bar  until  180G,  when  he 
entered  the  office  of  his  brother  John  in  New  York,  but 
did  not  really  engage  in  practice. 

Travels.  —  While  Irving  was  studying  law,  he  spent 
his  vacations  in  explorations  of  the  Sleepy  Hollow 
region  and  in  excursions  up  the  Hudson  and  the 
Mohawk  valleys,  to  visit  his  two  married  sisters.  He 
was  the  first  writer  to  describe  the  beauties  of  the 
Hudson  River.  In  1803,  he  accompanied  Judge  Hoff- 
man and  a  party  of  friends  on  a  journey  to  Ogdensburg, 
Montreal,  and  Quebec.  In  1804,  his  brothers  sent  him 
to  Europe,  hoping  to  benefit  his  health,  which  was  then 
so  feeble  that  the  captain  of  the  ship  said,  "  There's  a 
chap  who  will  go  overboard  before  we  get  across." 
Nevertheless,  Irving  landed  in  Bordeaux  greatly  im- 
proved in  health.  He  was  a  social  young  man,  and 
easily  made  friends.  During  his  stay  abroad,  which 
continued  for  nearly  two  years,  he  visited  France,  Italy, 
Sicily,  the  Netherlands,  and  England,  being  received 
into  the  best  society  in  all  the  chief  cities.  Early  in 
1806,  he  returned  to  New  York. 

In  1815,  Irving  again  went  to  Europe.  During  this 
second  residence  abroad,  which  lasted  seventeen  years, 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Thomas  Campbell,  Thomas 
Moore,  and  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  met  Mr.  Longfellow, 
who  was  then  in  Spain,  preparing  for  his  duties  as  pro- 
fessor at  Bowdoin. 

Upon  Irving's  return  in  1832,  he  was  welcomed  to 
America  by  a  public  banquet.  In  1834,  he  traveled  in 
the  West,  in  company  with  commissioners  appointed  to 
treat  Avith  the  Indians. 


338  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Partnership  in  Business.  —  In  1810,  a  partnership 
was  formed  by  the  three  brothers,  Peter,  Ebenezer,  and 
Washington  Irving.  Peter  made  the  purchases  and 
shipments  at  Liverpool,  and  Ebenezer  conducted  the 
sales  in  the  New  York  store.  By  the  terms  of  the  con- 
tract, Washington  was  not  to  pay  any  attention  to  the 
business,  but  was  to  receive  one-fifth  of  the  profits,  iii 
order  to  provide  for  his  support  and  leave  him  at  leisure 
to  devote  his  time  to  literature.  When  Irving  went 
abroad,  in  1815,  his  brother  Peter  was  so  ill  that 
Washington  took  his  place  for  a  time  in  the  Liverpool 
establishment.  Various  causes  combined  to  cripple  the 
business,  and  in  1818,  after  a  long  period  of  anxiety, 
the  firm  went  into  bankruptcy. 

Public  Offices.  —  Irving  declined  several  public  offi- 
ces, among  which  was  that  of  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
under  President  Van  Buren.  In  1829,  while  living  in 
Spain,  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Legation  to  the 
Court  of  St.  James,  and  returned  to  London  to  enter 
upon  his  duties.  He  retired  from  this  office  in  1831. 
During  President  Tyler's  administration,  Irving  was 
minister  to  Spain  (1842-46).  He  had  previously  spent 
three  years  in  that  country  (1826-29). 

Home In    1835,    Irving   purchased   an    estate    at 

Tarrytown,  on  the  Hudson,  where  he  made  a  home  for 
some  of  his  relatives  who  were  dependent  upon  him  for 
support.  Here  his  brother  Peter  spent  his  last  days, 
after  having  lived  abroad  for  nearly  thirty  years.  Eben- 
ezer Irving  with  his  five  daughters,  and  Irving's  sister, 
Mrs.  Paris,  with  one  daughter,  also  shared  his  home. 
The  house  was  originally  a  small  Dutch  cottage,  built 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  839 

by  one  of  the  Van  Tassel  famil}-,  about  a  hundred  years 
before.  It  is  described  in  "  The  Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow."  Irving  remodeled  and  greatly  enlarged  the 
house,  which  was  of  stone,  and  planted  slips  of  ivy 
brought  from  Melrose  Abbey.  In  after  years,  the  vines 
completely  covered  the  walls.  Irving  named  his  home 
"  The  Roost,*'  but  it  was  rechristened  "  Sunnyside." 
Washington  Irving  was  never  married.  In  early 
manhood,  he  was  engaged  to  Miss  Matilda  Hoffman, 
daughter  of  Judge  Hoffman.  She  died  in  1809,  in  her 
eighteenth  year. 

Literary  Career.  —  Irving's  first  literary  work  was 
a  play,  written  for  an  entertainment  at  the  house  of  a 
friend.  He  was  then  but  thirteen  years  old.  In  1802, 
he  contributed  humorous  articles  to  "  The  Morning 
Chronicle,"  a  daily  newspaper  edited  and  published  by 
his  brother  Peter.  These  articles  were  signed  "  Jona- 
than Oldstyle."  In  1807,  Irving,  in  partnership  with 
his  brother  William  and  James  K.  Paulding,  whose  sis- 
ter William  had  married,  wrote  and  published  "  Salma- 
gundi," a  humorons  magazine.  In  1813,  he  edited  for 
a  year  "  The  Analectic  Magazine,"  published  in  Phila- 
delphia. It  was  not  until  1818,  after  the  business  fail- 
ure of  the  Irving  brothers,  that  Irving's  literary  career 
began  in  earnest.  The  first  work  published  afterwards 
was  "The  Sketch-Book,"  written  under  the  assumed 
name  of  "  Geoffrey  Crayon."  It  became  popular  in 
England,  owing,  in  part,  to  the  commendation  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  In  1830,  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature 
bestowed  upon  Irving  one  of  the  two  fifty-guinea  gold 
medals  awarded  annually. 


340  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Death.  —  During  the  last  years  of  Irving's  life  he 
suffered  much  from  asthma,  and  spent  most  of  the  time 
quietly  at  "Sunnyside."  He  died  suddenly,  the  imme- 
diate cause  being  heart  disease.  The  funeral  services 
were  held  at  Christ  Church,  Tarrytown.  The  funeral 
procession  passed  over  the  bridge  which  is  immortalized 
in  "  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,"  and  which  was 
draped  with  black  for  the  occasion, 

IRVING'S   WORKS. 

Short  Stories  and  Sketches. 

1807.   Sahnagundi. 
1819-20.    The  Sketch-Book. 

Crayon  Papers. 
1822.   Bracebridge  Hall. 
1855.   Wolfert's  Roost. 

History,  Romance,  Travel,  and  Adventure. 

1809.    History  of   New  York,  by  Diedrich  Knickerbocker. 

A  humorous  account  of  the  settlement  by  the  Dutch. 
1824.    Tales  of  a  Traveller. 
1829.    Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  Granada. 

1831.  Voyages  of  the  Companions  of  Columbus. 

1832.  The  Alhambra. 

1835.  A  Tour  on  the  Prairies.     (Crayon  Miscellany.) 

1835.  Abbotsford  and  Newstead  Abbey.     (Crayon  Miscellany.) 

1835.  Legends  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain.     (Crayon  Miscellany.) 

1836.  Astoria.     An  Account  of  John  Jacob  Astor's  settlement  on 

the  Columbia  River,  Oregon. 

1837.  The  Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville. 

Biographies. 

1828.    The  Life  and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus. 

1849.  Oliver  Goldsmith  :  A  Biography. 

1850.  Mahomet  and  His  Successors. 

1855-59.    The  Life  of  George  Washington.     5  vols. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  341 


REFERENCES. 

Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving,  by  Pierre  M.  Irving. 

Wasliington  Irving,  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner.     American  Men 
of  Letters. 

Life  of  Washington  Irving,  by  Richard  Henry  Stoddard. 

Home  Life  of  Great  Authors,  by  H.  T.  Griswold. 

Irvingiana  :  a  Memorial  of  Washington  Irving. 

Studies  of  Irving,  1880. 

Portrait  of  Irving.     Harper's,  April,  1883.     Vol.  LXVI. 

Washington  Irving,^  by  George  Ripley. 
Harper's,  April,  1851.     Vol.  II.  p.  577. 

Sketch  of  Irving,  by  James  Wynne. 

Harper's,  Feb.,  1862.     Vol.  XXIV.  p.  349. 
Sunnyside,^  by  T.  A.  Richards. 

Harper's,  Dec,  1856.     Vol.  XIV.  p.  1. 

The  Romance  of  the  Hudson,^  by  Benson  J.  Lossing. 
Harper's,  April,  1876.     Vol.  LII.  p.  643. 

The  Catskills,^  by  Lucy  C.  Lillie. 

Harper's,  Sept.,  1883.     Vol.  LXVII.  p.  521. 

The  Genesis  of  the  Rip  Van  Winkle  Legend,  by  John  B.  Thompson. 
Harper's,  Sept.,  1883.    Vol.  LXVII.  p.  617. 

Washington  Irving,  by  Donald  G.  Mitchell.     (Ik  Marvel.) 
Atlantic,  June,  1864.     Vol.  XIII.  p.  694. 

Recollections  of  Irving,  by  his  Publisher,  G.  P.  Putnam. 
Atlantic,  Nov.,  1860.     Vol.  VL  p.  601. 

Address  Delivered  by  William  CuUen  Bryant  before  the  Nevp  York 
Historical  Society,  April  3,  1860. 

For  many  references  to  critical  essays  and  sketches,  see  Welsli's 
English  Masterpiece  Course,  p.  152. 

1  Illustrated. 


342  LESSONS    IN    ENGLISH. 

QUESTIONS    TOR    REVIEW. 

1 .  When  and  where  was  Irving  born  ? 

2.  What  can  you  sa}'  of  his  father? 

3.  In  what  two  ways  do  we  associate  the  name  of  Irvinii' 

with  that  of  George  Washington  ? 

4.  With  what  event  do  we  associate  the  birth  of  Irving? 

5.  How  many  brothers  and  sisters  had  he? 

6.  Where  was  his  early  home? 

7.  What  can  you  say  of  Irving  as  a  boy? 

8.  What  were  his  home  influences? 

9.  Where  and  how  was  he  educated? 

10.  AVhat  do  you  know  alwut  liis  early  literary  tastes? 

11.  Why  did  he  not  go  to  Columbia  College? 

12.  Which  of  his  brothers  were  studying  there? 

13.  What  was  Irving's  first  literary  work? 

14.  How  old  was  he  then? 

15.  With  whom  did  he  study  law? 

16.  How  old  was  he  when  he  began  his  law  studies? 

17.  How  old  when  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar? 

18.  How  did  he  occupy  the  intervening  years? 

19.  Which  works  of  Irving's  are  associated  with  the  scenes 

of  his  vacation  rambles? 

20.  What  can  you  say  of  his  first  journey  abroad? 

21.  What  literary  work  employed  his  leisure  in  1802? 

22.  What  nom-de-plume  did  he  use  in  this  work? 

23.  With  whom  was  Irving  then  studying  law? 

24.  Who  was  Matilda  Hoffman  ? 

25.  How  old  was  Irving  when  she  died? 

26.  Which  of  his  works  was  published  during  that  year? 

27.  Under  what  nom-de-plume  ? 

28.  What  magazines  did  he  edit?     When? 

29.  What  can  you  say  of  tlie  firm  of  Irving  Brothers? 


BTOGRArHlCAL    SKETCHES.  343 

30.  When  and  why  did  Irving  make  his  second  voyage  to 

Europe  ? 

31.  When  did  his  literary  career  really  begin? 

32.  Under  what  nom-de-plume  did  he  write  '•  The  Sketch- 

Book  "  ? 

33.  AVhat  were  Irving's  relations  with  Sir  Water  Scott? 

34.  What  other  authors  did  he  meet  abroad? 

35.  How  long  was  his  second  sojourn  in  Europe? 
3G.    How  many  of  these  years  were  spent  in  Spain? 

37.  Which  of  his  works  are  associated  with  that  country? 

38.  What  public  office  did  he  hold  in  London  from  1829  to 

1831? 

39.  What  honors  wei-e  conferred  upon  him  during  this  period  ? 

40.  What  work  was  published  in  the  year  of  his  return  to 

America  ? 

41.  How  was  he  welcomed  home? 

42.  What  authors  are  associated  with  "Abbotsford  and  New- 

stead  Abbey  "  ? 

43.  What  books  resulted  from  Irving's  journey  through  the 

West? 

44.  When   and  why  did  Irving  make  his  third  vo3'age  to 

Europe  ? 

45.  AVhat  two  works  were  published  soon  after  his  return? 
4G.    fxive  the  history  of  "  Sunnyside." 

47.  How  did  Irving  repay  the  kindness  of  his  brothers? 

48.  AVhat  was  his  last  work? 

49.  When  and  where  did  he  die? 

50.  How  old  was  he? 

51.  Where  was  he  buried? 

52.  What  can  you  say  of  his  habits  and  character? 

53.  What  of  the  style  of  his  writings? 

54.  Can  you  name  any  of  Irving's  friends  among  American 

writers  ? 

55.  Who  was  his  biographer? 


344  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

HENRY   WADSWORTH   LONGFELLOW. 

Born  at  Portland,  Maine,  Feb.  27,  1807. 
Died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  24,  1882.. 

Home  Circle.  —  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow  was 
the  second  son  of  Stephen  Longfellow,  a  lawyer  of 
Portland.  There  were  three  other  sons  and  four 
daughters.  The  mother  was  a  descendant  of  John 
Alden  and  the  daughter  of  General  Wadsworth,  a 
Revolutionary  officer. 

Early  Home.  —  Longfellow  was  born  in  a  house  which 
is  still  standing  at  the  corner  of  Fore  and  Hancock 
Streets.  A  few  months  later,  the  family  removed  to 
Mrs.  Longfellow's  old  home  —  the  Wadsworth  house  — 
on  Congress  Street,  now  occupied  by  the  poet's  sister, 
Mrs.  Pierce.  Here  Longfellow's  early  life  was  passed. 
The  poem  "  My  Lost  Youth "  contains  references  to 
Portland,  the  poet's  early  home. 

School  lilfe.  —  Li  private  schools  and  in  the  "  town 
school "  of  Portland,  Longfellow  received  his  early 
education.  He  was  prepared  for  college  at  the  Port- 
land Acadeni}-.  Even  when  a  boy,  he  was  fond  of 
books,  and  made  rapid  progress  in  his  studies. 

College  Life.  —  When  only  fourteen  years  of  age, 
Longfellow  was  admitted  to  Bowdoin  College,  in  the 
same  class  with  his  elder  brother  Stephen,  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne,  and  John  S.  C.  Abbott.  He  was  graduated 
in  1825,  ranking  second  in  a  class  of  thirty-seven  mem- 
bers. At  the  Commencement  exercises,  he  delivered 
an  oration  upon  the  subject  "  Our  Native  Writers."     It 


BIOGKAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  345 

was  the  wish  of  his  class  that  he  should  be  their  class 
poet ;  but  the  professors  decided  that  he  ought  to  re- 
ceive instead  an  appointment  which  would  show  his 
hisfh  rank  as  a  scholar. 

Professional  Studies.  —  For  nearly  a  year  after  his 

graduation,  Longfellow  studied  law  in  his  father's  office, 
but  he  did  not  find  the  work  congenial  to  his  tastes  and 
he  was  well  pleased  to  turn  his  thoughts  in  another 
direction. 

Professorships.  —  In  1826,  it  was  decided  to  establish 
at  Bowdoin  College  a  professorship  of  modern  languages 
and  literature;  and  Longfellow,  then  only  nineteen 
years  old,  was  chosen  to  fill  the  chair.  In  order  to  pre- 
pare for  this  work,  he  spent  nearly  four  years  in  Spain, 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany.  In  1829,  the  young  pro- 
fessor entered  upon  his  duties  at  Bowdoin.  He  was 
enthusiastic  in  his  work,  and  determined  to  succeed. 
Finding  no  suitable  text-books  for  his  classes,  he  pre- 
pared and  published  for  their  use  elementary  grammars 
of  the  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  languages. 

In  1835,  Prof.  George  Ticknor  resigned  his  position 
as  Professor  of  Modern  Languages  at  Harvard  College, 
and  Longfellow  was  chosen  to  succeed  him.  To  pre- 
pare for  the  duties  of  this  new  position,  he  again  went 
abroad  and  spent  about  two  years  in  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Germany,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  the  Tyrol,  study- 
ing the  languages  of  those  countries.  In  November, 
1836,  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  professorship, 
which  he  discharged  for  eighteen  years,  resigning  in 
1854,  to  devote  his  time  to  literature.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  James  Russell  Lowell. 


346  LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH".    , 

Family.  —  In  1831,  while  he  was  professor  at  Bow- 
doiu,  Longfellow  was  married  to  Miss  Mary  Storer  /.  '^\ 
Potter  of  Portland,  Me.  Mrs.  Longfellow  went  abroad 
with  him  in  1835,  after  he  had  received  his  appointment 
to  Harvard.  She  died  at  Rotterdam  in  November  of 
that  year.  The  poem  "  Footsteps  of  Angels  "  contains 
a  reference  to  her.  Longfellow's  second  wife  was  Miss 
Fanny  Appleton  of  Boston  — the  "  Mary  Ashburton  " 
of  "  Hyperion."  They  were  married  in  1843.  In  1861, 
Mrs.  Longfellow  was  burned  to  death,  her  clothing 
taking  fire  from  a  wax  taper  with  which  she  was  seal- 
ing a  letter.  Two  sons  and  three  daughters  lived  to 
maturity.     A  fourth  daughter  died  in  infancy. 

Home.  —  When  Longfellow  became  professor  at  Har- 
vard, he  secured  rooms  in  "  the  Craigie  house "  on 
Brattle  Street,  the  place  which  Washington  made  his 
head-quarters  while  at  Cambridge.  In  1843,  after  Mrs. 
Craigie's  death,  Longfellow's  father-in-law  purchased 
for  the  poet  and  his  bride  the  Craigie  estate  and  a  lot 
opposite  the  house,  commanding  an  unobstructed  view 
of  the  Charles  River  meadows.  This  is  the  lot  upon 
which  it  is  proposed  to  erect  a  statue  of  Longfellow. 

For  forty  years  the  Craigie  house  was  Longfellow's 
home.  The  front  room  on  the  right,  once  occupied  by 
General  Washington  as  a  reception  room,  was  the  poet's 
study.  Here  are  still  kept  the  original  manuscripts  of 
Longfellow's  works,  handsomely  bound.  By  the  fire- 
place stands  "the  children's  arm-chair."  The  room 
over  the  study,  once  Washington's  chamber,  and  later 
occupied  by  Professor  Longfellow  before  his  marriage, 
became  the  nursery  of  the  poet's  children.  Long- 
fellow's summer  home  was  at  Nahant. 


BIOGliAPHlCAL   SKETCHES.  347 

Literary  Career. —  Longfellow's  first  poem  was  writ- 
ten when  he  was  about  ten  years  old.  It  was  entitled 
"  Lovell's  Fight,"  and  was  published  in  a  Portland 
newspaper.  While  he  was  in  college,  he  contributed 
poems  to  "  The  United  States  Literary  Gazette." 
Among  the  poems  written  before  their  author  was 
nineteen  years  old  are  "  Autumn,"  "  An  April  Day," 
"  Sunrise  on  the  Hills,"  and  "  Hymn  of  the  Moravian 
Nuns  at  Bethlehem." 

From  1830  to  1840,  Longfellow  contributed  essays  to 
the  "  North  American  Review."  One  of  these  articles, 
published  in  1837,  was  a  review  of  Hawthorne's  "  Twice- 
Told  Tales."  In  addition  to  his  original  writings,  Long- 
fellow has  edited  several  works,  among  which  are  "  The 
Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  "  published  in  1845 ;  and 
"Poems  of  Places"  in  thirty-one  volumes  (1876-1879). 

Third  Voyage  to  Europe.  —  In  1868-69,  Mr.  Long- 
fellow visited  Europe  for  the  third  time,  receiving 
wherever  he  went  the  most  flattering  attentions  and 
honors.  The  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
conferred  upon  him  honorary  degrees,  and  he  was  made 
an  honorary  member  of  many  foreign  literary  and  scien- 
tific societies. 

Moritiiri  Salutamiis.  —  In  1875,  the  semi-centennial 
celebration  of  the  class  of  1825  was  held  at  Bowdoin 
College.  Only  twelve  of  the  class  were  left  and  but 
one  of  their  old  instructors,  Professor  Packard.  Long- 
fellow read  to  the  large  audience  gathered  in  the  church 
the  poem  "Morituri  Salutamus,"  which  he  had  written 
for  the  occasion.  It  has  been  called  "  the  grandest  hymn 
to  age  that  was  ever  written." 


348  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

The  Children's  Arm-Chair.  —  When  the  Cambridge 
authorities  decided  to  widen  Brattle  Street,  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  cut  down  the  great  horse-chest- 
nut tree  that  stood  before  the  blacksmith  shop  of 
Dexter  Pratt.  This  was  the  "  spreading  chestnut 
tree  "  referred  to  in  Longfellow's  poem,  "  The  Village 
Blacksmith."  Mr.  Longfellow  protested  against  the 
removal  of  the  tree,  but  in  vain.  It  was  then  pro- 
posed that  the  children  of  the  public  schools  of  Cam- 
bridge should  each  contribute  a  small  sum  of  money 
to  pay  for  the  making  of  a  large  arm-chair  from  the 
wood  of  the  tree.  This  chair  was  presented  to  Mr. 
Longfellow  on  his  seventy-second  birthday,  as  the  gift 
of  the  children  of  Cambridge.  To  the  last,  the  poet 
prized  the  children's  arm-chair  as  one  of  his  chief 
treasures.  All  the  children  were  invited  to  call  and 
see  it  in  its  place  of  honor  beside  the  fire-place  in  his 
study.  To  thank  the  children  for  their  gift,  Long- 
fellow wrote  the  poem,  "  From  my  Arm-Chair." 

Birthday  Celebration.  —  Longfellow's  seventy-fifth 
birthday,  Feb.  27,  1882,  was  celebrated  in  the  schools 
all  over  the  United  States,  by  recitations  from  the 
poet's  works.  Whittier's  poem,  "  The  Poet  and  the 
Children,"  refers  to  this  celebration. 

Death.  —  Less  than  a  month  later,  the  poet  passed 
away.  The  funeral  services  at  his  old  home  were  con- 
ducted by  his  brother,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Longfellow. 
Among  those  present  were  Fields,  Emerson,  Hohnes, 
Lowell,  and  Whittier.  After  the  burial  in  Mount 
Auburn  Cemetery,  the  friends  assembled  at  Appleton 
Chapel,  Harvard  College,  where  memorial  services  were 
held. 


I 


BIOGKAPHICAL   SKETUEES.  349 

LONGFELLOW'S   WORKS. 

Prose. 

1835.     Outre-Mer;  a  Pilgrimage  bej'ond  the  Sea.    2  vols. 
1889.     Hyperion  ;  a  Romance.     2  vols. 
1849.     Kavanagh ;  a  Tale. 

POBTRT. 

1839.     Voices  of  the  Night. 

18-11.     Ballads,  and  Other  Poems. 

18-42.     Poems  on  Slavery. 

1843.     The  Spanish  Student ;  a  Play  in  Three  Acts. 

1845.     The  Belfry  of  Bruges,  and  Other  Poems. 

1847.     Evangeline ;  a  Tale  of  Acadie. 

1849.     The  Seaside  and  the  Fireside. 

1851.     The  Golden  Legend. 

1855.     The  Song  of  Hiawatha. 

1858.     The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish ;  with  Birds  of  Passage, 

Flight  the  First.     22  poems. 
1863.     Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  First  Day ;  with  Birds  of  Passage. 

Flight  the  Second.     7  poems. 
1866.     Flower-de-Luce.     12  poems. 
1868.     New  England  Tragedies. 

1865-1867.     Dante's  Divine  Comedy.     Translation.     3  vols. 
1872.     The  Divine  Tragedy. 
1872.     Christus ;  a  Mystery. 

C  The  Divine  Tragedy. 
Including      <  The  Golden  Legend. 

(^The  New  England  Tragedies. 

1872.     Three  Books  of  Song. 

! Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Second  Day. 
Judas  Maccabfeus ;  a  Dramatic  Poem. 
A  Handful  of  Translations. 

1874.  Aftermath. 

I  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Third  Day. 
Containmg    j  gj^.^^  ^^  Passage,  Flight  the  Third. 

1875.  The  Masque  of  Pandora,  and  Other  Poems. 


350  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

The  Hanging  of  the  Crane. 
Morituri  Salutamus ;   poem  for  semi-centen- 
Containmg  ■{      nial  of  Class  of  1825,  Bowdoin  College. 
Birds  of  Passage,  Flight  the  Fourth. 
^  A  Book  of  Sonnets. 
1878.     Keramos,  and  Other  Poems. 

r  Birds  of  Passage,  Flight  the  Fifth. 
Containing  <  Sonnets. 

(  Translations. 

1880.     Ultima  Thule. 

REFERENCES. 

Life  and  Letters,  by  Rev.  Samuel  Longfellow. 

Life  of  Longfellow,  by  Francis  H.  Underwood. 

Life  of  Longfellow,  by  AV.  Sloane  Kennedy. 

Life  of  Longfellow,  by  George  Lowell  Austin. 

Preface  to  Memorial  Edition  of  Poems. 

Studies  in  Longfellow,  by  AV.  C.  Gannett.     [Outlines.] 

Literary  Woi-ld.     Longfellow  Number,  Vol.  XII.     Feb.  26,  1881. 

Home  Life  of  Great  Authors,  by  H .  T.  Griswold. 

Homes  of  American  Authors,  by  George  W.  Curtis. 

Poets'  Homes.     First  Series,  by  R.  H.  Stoddard. 

Poets  of  America,  by  E.  C.  Stedman. 

Henry  AVadsworth  Longfellow,  by  George  AA'.  Curtis.     AVith  Por- 
trait.    Harper's,  June,  1882.     A^ol.  LXA^  p.  123. 

Henry  AVadsworth  Longfellow,^  by  R.  H.  Stoddard. 
Scribner's,  Nov.,  1878.    A"ol.  XAai.  p.  1. 

Henry  AVadsworth  Longfellow,  by  E.  C.  Stedman. 
Century,  Oct.,  1883.     A^ol.  XXVI.  p.  926. 

Cambridge  on  the  Charles,^  by  C.  F.  Richardson. 
Harper's,  Jan.,  1876.     A^ol.  LII.  p.  191. 

Henry  AVadsworth  Longfellow,  by  George  AV.  Curtis. 
Atlantic,  Dec,  1863.     A'ol.  XIL  p.  769. 

Henry  AVadsworth  Longfellow,  by  O.  B.  Frothinghara. 
Atlantic,  June,  1882.     A^ol.  XLIX.  p.  819. 

1  Illustrated. 


BIOGRArHlCAL    SKETCHES.  351 

Celebration  of  Seventy-fifth  Birthday,  by  JNIaine  Historical  Society. 

Published  in  1882. 
Old  Landmarks  of  Middlesex,  by  Samuel  Adams  Drake. 
Paige's  History  of  Cambridge. 

The  Riverside  Edition  of  Longfellow's  works  contains  valuable 
notes  concerning  individual  poems. 

For  critical  references,  see  Welsh's  English  JNIasterpiece  Course, 
p.  168. 

QUESTIONS   rOR  EEVIEW. 

1.  When  aud  where  was  Lougfellow  born? 

2.  Who  were  his  parents? 

3.  How  many  brothers  and  sisters  had  he? 

4.  Where  did  he  spend  his  early  life? 

5.  What  poem  refers  to  Portland? 

6.  AVhat  was  his  first  published  poem? 

7.  How  old  was  he  when  he  entered  Bowdoin  College? 

8.  Mention  some  of  his  classmates. 

D.    AVhat  can  yon  say  of  his  scholarship? 

10.  When  was  he  graduated?, 

11.  What  poem  did  he  write  for  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 

his  class?     In  what  year? 

12.  What  poems  were  published  while  he  was  in  college? 
1.3.    What  can  you  say  of  his  law  studies? 

14.  AVhen  and  why  did  he  make  his  first  visit  to  Europe* 

15.  What  countries  did  he  visit? 

16.  What  can  you  say  of  his  meeting  with  Irving? 

17.  In  what  year  did  he  become  professor  at  Bowdoin? 

18.  How  long  after  this  was  he  married?     To  whom? 

19.  How  long  did  he  remain  at  Bowdoin? 

20.  What  literary  work  did  he  perform  during  this  period  ? 

21.  When  and  under  what  circumstances  did  he  make   a 

second  voyage  to  Europe  ? 

22.  AVhat  sorrow  is  associated  with  this  visit? 


352  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

23.  What  countries  did  he  visit? 

24.  How  long  was  he  absent  ? 

25.  When   did   he  enter   upon  his  duties  as   professor  at 

Harvard  ? 

26.  Who  was  his  predecessor  in  this  position  ? 

27.  How  long  did  Longfellow  remain  at  Harvard? 

28.  Who  succeeded  him? 

29.  What  books  are  associated  with  his  travels? 

30.  When  was  "Evangeline"  written? 

31.  What   poem  was  published  in  the  year  after  leaving 

Harvard  ? 

32.  When  did  his  second  marriage  occur? 

33.  Describe  his  home. 

34.  What  were  some  of  its  associations? 
3.5.    How  many  children  had  he  ? 

36.  When  and  how  did  the  second  Mrs.  Longfellow  die? 

37.  Tell  the  story  of  the  "  Children's  Arm-Chair." 

38.  How  was  his  seventy-fifth  birthda}'  celebrated? 

39.  What  poem  refers  to  the  celebration?     Who  wrote  it? 

40.  What  was  Longfellow's  last  book? 

41.  What  does  the  title  mean  ? 

42.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "  Aftermath  "  ? 

43.  AVhy  are  these  both  appropriate  titles? 

44.  When  and  where  did  Longfellow  die? 

45.  How  old  was  he? 

46.  What  can  you  say  of  his  funeral? 

47.  Where  is  his  grave  ? 

48.  What  do  you  know  about  his  character? 

49.  Relate  an  instance  of  his  kindness  to  children. 

50.  Describe  his  personal  appearance. 

51.  What  can  you  say  about  his  style  of  writing? 

52.  What  are  some  of  the  most  popular  of  his  shorter  poems  ? 

53.  In  what  poems  do  you  find  references  to  some  of  Long- 

fellow's friends? 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  353 

JOHN   GREENLEAF  WHITTTER. 

Born  at  East  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Dec.  17,  1807. 
Still  living  at  Amesbury  and  Dan  vers,  Mass. 

Home  Circle. — John  Greenleaf  Whittier  is  the  eldest 
son  of  John  Whittier,  a  Quaker  farmer.  Of  the  home 
circle,  so  beautifully  described  in  "  Snow-Bound,"  only 
the  aged  poet  survives.  His  brother  Matthew  died  in 
1883.  The  eldest  sister,  Mary,  died  in  1860,  and  the 
youngest,  Elizabeth,  four  years  later.  Among  the  in- 
mates of  the  home  were  Uncle  Moses  Whittier  and  Mercy 
Hussey,  the  maiden  sister  of  the  poet's  mother.  The 
"guest"  referred  to  in  "Snow-Bound"  was  Miss  Har- 
riet Livermore. 

Early  Home.  —  Whittier's  birth-place  was  a  lonely 
farm-house,  situated  about  three  miles  from  Haverhill. 
Here  he  spent  most  of  his  time  during  the  first  twenty- 
three  years  of  his  life.  Though  more  than  two  hundred 
years  old,  the  house  still  stands.  The  Whittiers  sold 
the  farm  in  1840,  and  removed  to  Amesbury,  eight 
miles  distant,  where  was  situated  the  Quaker  meeting- 
house which  the  family  had  always  attended. 

School  Life —  At  seven  years  of  age,  Whittier  at- 
tended the  school  of  Joshua  Coffin,  who  was  his  life- 
long friend.  Later  he  attended  the  district  school, 
which  was  kept  for  only  three  months  in  the  year, 
with  a  different  teacher  every  winter.  The  school- 
master mentioned  in  "  Snow-Bound "  was  a  student 
from  Dartmouth  College.  In  his  twentieth  year, 
Whittier  entered  Haverhill  Academy,  having  earned 
enough  money,  by  making  shoes  and  slippers,  to  pay 


354  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

liis  board  and  tuition  for  six  months.  The  following 
whiter,  1827-28,  was  spent  at  West  Amesbury,  where 
he  taught  the  district  school.  With  the  money  thus 
earned  he  passed  another  six  months'  term  of  study  at 
the  Academy. 

Early  Literary  Career.  —  When  Whittier  was  four- 
teen years  old,  his  teacher,  Joshua  Coffin,  lent  him  a 
copy  of  Burns's  poems.  These  were  an  inspiration  to  the 
boy's  mind,  and,  after  reading  them,  he  began  to  make 
rhymes  of  his  own.  Some  of  his  earliest  poems  were 
published  in  the  Newburyport  "Free  Press."  They 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  editor,  William  Lloyd 
Garrison ;  and  it  was  owing  to  his  advice  that  Whit- 
tier attended  the  Haverhill  Academy.  One  of  his  first 
poems  was  called  "  The  Deity."  While  studying  at  the 
Academy,  he  wi'ote  for  the  Haverhill  "  Gazette." 

Writings  for  Periodicals.  —  Most  of  Whittier's  works 
made  their  first  appearance  in  magazines  and  papers. 
Among  the  periodicals  to  which  he  has  contributed  are 
the  following :  — 

The  American  Manufacturer. 

The  New  England  Weekly  Review. 

The  Yankee. 

The  New  England  Magazine. 

The  Middlesex  Standard. 

The  Atlantic  Monthly. 

Editorial  Duties. 

1831-32.  Editor  of  "New  England  Weekly  Review,"  Hartford, 
Conn. 

1836.     Editor  of  Haverhill  "  Gazette  "  (six  months). 

1838-40.     Editor  of  "Pennsylvania  Freeman,"  Philadelphia. 

1847-59.  Corresponding  editor  of  "The  National  Era,"  Wash- 
ington, D.C 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  355 

Anti-Slavery  Work.  —  In  1833,  Whittier  engaged 
with  his  friend  Garrison  in  the  work  of  arousing  public 
sentiment  against  slavery.  In  that  year,  he  published 
a  pamphlet  on  the  abolition  of  slavery.  It  was  entitled 
"  Justice  and  Expediency."  In  1837,  he  spent  three 
months  in  New  York  as  secretary  of  the  Anti-Slavery 
Society. 

In  connection  with  this  work,  he  contributed  both 
prose  and  verse  to  various  papers  and  magazines,  in- 
cluding — 

The  Liberator. 

The  Emancipator. 

The  Pennsj'lvania  Freeman. 

The  Xational  Era. 

The  Anti-Slavery  Standard. 

Most  of  the  poems  were  collected  in  a  volume,  enti- 
tled "  Voices  of  Freedom." 

Homes.  —  For  most  of  the  time  since  1840,  Whittier's 
home  has  been  at  Amesbury,  Mass.  After  the  death  of 
his  father,  the  poet,  with  his  aunt,  his  mother,  and  his 
younger  sister,  removed  to  the  house  which  is  still 
nominally  his  home,  although  most  of  his  time  is  spent 
with  relatives  at  "  Oak  Knoll,"  in  Danvers,  a  few  miles 
distant.     Whittier  has  never  married. 

WHITTIER'S   WORKS. 

Prose. 

1831.  Legends  of  New  England.     (Prose  and  Verse.) 

184:5.  The  Stranger  in  Lowell. 

1847.  Supernaturalism  in  Xew  England. 

1849.  Leaves  from  Margaret  Smith's  Journal. 

1850.  Old  Portraits  and  Modern  Sketches. 
1854.  Literary  Recreations  and  Miscellanies. 


356  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

Poetry. 

1832.  Moll  Pitcher. 

1836.  Mogg  Megone. 

1843.  Lays  of  My  Home,  and  Other  Poems. 

1848.  The  Bridal  of  Pennacook. 

1849.  The  Voices  of  Freedom. 

1850.  Songs  of  Labor,  and  Other  Poems. 

1853.  The  Chapel  of  the  Hermits. 

1854.  A  Sabbath  Scene. 

1856.  The  Panorama,  and  Other  Poems. 

1860.  Home  Ballads,  and  Other  Poems. 

1863.  In  War  Time,  and  Other  Poems. 

1866.  Snow-Bomid  :  a  AVinter  Idyl. 

1867.  The  Tent  on  the  Beach,  and  Other  Poems. 

1868.  Among  the  Hills,  and  Other  Poems. 

1870.  Miriam,  and  Other  Poems. 

1872.  The  Pennsylvania  Pilgrim,  and  Other  Poems. 

1874.  Mabel  Martin. 

1878.  The  Vision  of  Echard,  and  Other  Poems. 

1881.  The  King's  Missive,  and  Other  Poems. 

Books  Edited  by  Whittier. 

1832.     The  Literary  Remains  of  J.  G.  C.  Brainard. 

1837.  Views  of  Slavery  and  Emancipation,  by  Harriet  Martineau. 
1837.     Letters  from  John  Quincy  Adams  to  his  Constituents. 

1871.  Child-Life  :  a  Collection  of  Poems. 

1873.  The  Journal  of  John  Woolman. 
1873.     Child-Life  in  Prose. 

1875.  Songs  of  Three  Centuries. 

1875.     Hazel  Blossoms.     Poems  by  Elizabeth  Whittier. 

1882.  Letters  of  Lydia  Maria  Child. 

REFERENCES. 
Life  of  Whittier,  by  F.  H.  Underwood. 
Life  of  Whittier,  by  W.  Sloane  Kennedy. 
Home  Life  of  Great  Authors,  by  H.  T.  Griswold. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  357 

Homes  of  American  Authors. 

Poets'  Homes,  1st  series. 

Poets  of  America,  by  E.  C.  Stedman. 

Boyhood  of  Whittier,^  by   W.  H.  Ilideing. 

St.  Nicholas,  Oct.,  1887. 

.John  Greenleaf  Whittier,^  by  R.  H.  Stoddard. 
Scrtbner's,  Aug.,  1879.     Vol.  XVIII.  p.  569. 

The  Quaker  Poet,^  by  Harriet  Prescott  Spofford. 
Harper's,  Jan.,  1884.     Vol.  LXVIII.  p.  171. 

The  Local  Associations  of  Whittier's  Poems,^  by  George  M, 
White.     Harper's,  Feb.,  1883.     Vol.  LXVI.  p.  353. 

A  Visit  to  the  Birthplace  of  ^V"hittier,  by  C.  L.  Forten. 
Scribner's,  Sept.,  1872.     Vol.  IV.  p.  581. 

Portrait  of  Whittier. 

Harpers,  Jan.,  1884.     Vol.  LXVIII.  p.  170. 

John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  by  D.  A.  Wasson. 

Atlantic,  March,  1864.     Vol.  XIII.  p.  331. 
Outlines  for  a  Study  of  Holmes,  Bryant,  and  Whittier.     [Leaflet.] 

A  Whittier  Number  of  The  Literary  World  was  issued  on  the 
occasion  of  his  seventieth  birthday.  December,  1877.  Vol. 
VIII.  p.  123. 

For  critical  references,  see  Welsh's  English  Masterpiece  Course, 
p.  166. 

QUESTIONS   rOE   EEVIEW. 

1 .  When  and  where  was  Whittier  born  ? 

2.  W^ho  was  his  father? 

3.  How  many  brothers  and  sisters  had  he? 

4.  Describe  his  early  home. 

5.  What  poem  refers  to  his  early  home-life? 
f).  Who  was  Moses  W^hittier? 

7.  Who  was  Mercy  Hussey? 

8.  What  can  you  say  of  Wliittier's  early  education? 

1  Illustrated. 


358  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

9.  Who  advised  him  to  enter  the  Academy? 

10.  How  did  he  pay  his  expenses  there? 

11.  How  long  did  he  remain  at  the  Academy? 

12.  Where  did  he  teach  school? 

13.  Did  Whittier  go  to  college? 

14.  What  do  yon  think  of  his  educational   advantages,  as 

compared  with  your  own? 

15.  How  can  you  account  for  his  success? 

16.  What  seems  to  have  first  suggested  to  him  the  writing 

of  poetry  ? 

17.  Where  were  his  early  poems  published? 

18.  What  was  the  title  of  one  of  them? 

19.  Mention  some  of  the  periodicals  to  which  he  has  con- 

tributed. 

20.  What  was  the  title  of  his  first  book? 

21.  When  was  this  published? 

22.  Was  this  earlier  or  later  than  Longfellow's  first  book? 

23.  What  was  Longfellow  doing  at  this  time? 

24.  What  can  you  say  of  Irving's  fame  at  this  time? 

25.  What  book  did  Bryant  publish  in  the  same  year? 

2G.  What  literary  work  did  Whittier  do  in  Hartford,  Conn.? 

27.  For  how  long? 

28.  What  were  his  relations  with  William  Lloyd  Garrison? 

29.  To  what  periodicals  did  he  contribute  articles  against 

slaver}'  ? 

30.  What  volume  contains  some  of  these  anti-slavery  poems  ? 

31.  What  other  work  did  he  do  for  the  anti-slavery  move- 

ment? 

32.  What   association   had    Whittier   with  the   "Haverhill 

Gazette  "  ? 

33.  What  Philadelphia  paper  did  he  edit? 

34.  For  how  long? 

35.  What  was  his  connection  with  the  "  National  Era"? 

36.  Did  he  reside  in  Washington  meanwhile? 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  359 

37.  What  poems  were  about  war  topics? 

38.  What  sorrow  came  to  Whittier  in  1864? 

39.  Where  was  he  then  living? 

40.  How  long  has  this  been  his  nominal  home? 

41.  How  many  of  his  honseliold  then  remained? 

42.  How  many  now? 

43.  What  can  you  say  about  his  Amesbury  home? 

44.  What  about  the  relations  between  himself  and  younger 

sister  ? 

45.  What  is  the  title  of  her  little  book  of  poems? 

4G.    Can  you  find  any  of  his  poems  which  contain  references 
to  her  ? 

47.  Was  Whittier  ever  married? 

48.  Can  you  find  in  his  poems  any  suggestions  of  a  possible 

romance  in  his  life? 

49.  What  literary  work  has  Whittier  done  since  1882? 

50.  Where  does  he  spend  most  of  his  time  ? 

51.  How  old  is  he? 

52.  What  do  you  know  about  him  as  a  man? 

53.  What  are  his  most  popular  poems? 

54.  Has  he  ever  been  abroad? 

55.  AVhat  do  his  poems  tell  us  about  his  friendships? 


360  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

NATHANIEL   HAWTHORNE. 

Born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  Jiily  4,  1804. 
Died  at  Plymouth,  N.  H.,  May  19,  1864. 
Buried  at  Concord,  Mass.,  May  23,  1864. 

Home  Circle.  —  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  was  the  only 
son  of  Nathaniel  ITathorne,  a  Salem  sea  captain.  When 
the  younger  Nathaniel  became  a  man  he  changed  the 
spelling  of  the  family  name.  There  were  two  sisters, 
one  older  and  one  younger  than  Nathaniel.  Captain 
Hathorne  died  in  South  America  when  Nathaniel  was 
only  four  3'^ears  old. 

Early  Life.  —  After  the  death  of  Hawthorne's  father 
the  family  removed  to  Mrs.  Hawthorne's  old  home  in 
Herbert  Street,  where  they  remained  until  Nathaniel 
was  thirteen  years  old.  Hawthorne's  childhood  was  a 
strange  and  sad  one.  His  mother  was  so  burdened 
with  grief  at  the  death  of  her  husband  that  she  secluded 
herself  from  all  her  friends.  The  sisters,  too,  as  they 
grew  up,  lived  apart  from  society  and  even  from  their 
own  family  circle,  each  occupied  .with  her  own  pursuits. 
There  was  little  brightness  or  gayety  in  Hawthorne's 
early  home.  When  he  was  nine  years  old  he  was 
injured  by  a  ball,  so  that  for  three  years  he  was  lame 
and  unable  to  attend  school.  During  this  time  he  was 
taught  at  home  by  Joseph  Worcester,  compiler  of  the 
dictionary.  Soon  after,  the  family  removed  to  Maine, 
near  Sebago  Lake.  The  new  home  was  a  lonely  place. 
There  were  formed  the  habits  of  solitude  which  made 
Hawthorne  appear  so  eccentric  when  he  became  a  man. 
Having  no  companions  to  enjoy  tlie  sport  with  him, 
he  would  skate  all  alone  on  the  lake  until  after  mid- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  361 

night,  on  moonlight  nights.  He  took  delight  in  ram- 
bling about  in  the  woods  near  his  home.  His  uncle 
having  offered  to  send  him  to  college,  he  occupied  most 
of  his  time  in  study. 

College  Life.  —  In  1821,  he  entered  Bowdoin  College. 
In  the  Class  of  '25  were  also  John  S.  C.  Abbott,  and 
Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow.  Horatio  Bridge  and 
Franklin  Pierce  were  in  the  class  above  Hawthorne, 
but  were  his  best  friends. 

Early  Literary  Career.  —  When  Hawthorne  was  a 
little  boy,  his  taste  for  literature  became  apparent.  He 
would  pore  for  hours  over  Spenser's  "  Faerie  Queene," 
Thomson's  "Castle  of  Indolence,"  and  Bunyan's  "Pil- 
grim's Progress."  Very  early,  too,  he  began  to  write  in 
note-books  his  impressions  of  what  he  heard  and  saw 
and  read.  While  he  was  confined  to  the  house  by  his 
lameness,  he  wrote  a  little  newspaper,  "  edited  and  pub- 
lished by  Nathaniel  Hawthorne."  During  the  thirteen 
years  following  his  graduation,  Hawthorne  remained  at 
his  old  home  in  Salem,  spending  the  days  in  studying 
and  writing  and  the  evenings  in  long  solitary  walks. 
During  this  time  he  wrote  his  first  novel,  "Fanshawe," 
a  story  of  life  at  Bowdoin  College ;  also  most  of  the 
stories  which  were  contained  in  the  "  Twice-Told 
Tales."  In  1836,  he  spent  four  months  in  Boston, 
editing  a  magazine.  Here  he  wrote  "  Seven  Tales  of 
My  Native  Land,"  which  he  afterwards  destroyed. 

Boston  Custom  House.  —  In  1838,  Hawthorne  re- 
ceived from  George  Bancroft,  then  collector  of  the  port 
of  Boston,  a  situation  as  weigher  and  ganger  in  the 
Boston  Custom  House.     Here  he  remained  two  years. 


362  LESSONS    IN   ENGLISH. 

Brook  Farm.  —  After  leaving  this  situation,  Haw- 
thorne spe2it  a  year  (1840-41)  at  Brook  Farm,  a  social- 
istic community  at  West  Roxbury,  near  Boston,  "■The 
Blithedale  Romance,"  written  eleven  years  later,  is 
founded  upon  his  experiences  in  this  community. 

Family.  —  In  1842,  Hawthorne  married  Miss  Sophia 
Peabody  of  Salem.  The  first  three  years  after  his  mar- 
riage were  passed  at  "-  The  Old  Manse  "  in  Concord, 
Mass.,  adjoining  the  Revolutionary  battle-field.  During 
these  years  were  written  the  stories  and  sketches  which 
were  published  in  two  volumes  as  "  Mosses  from  an  Old 
Manse."  Hawthorne  had  two  daughters.  His  only 
son,  Julian,  is  the  well-known  novelist.  After  Haw- 
thorne's death,  his  widow  and  his  daughters  edited  the 
''  Note-Books." 

Salem  Custom  House.  —  The  necessity  for  a  steady 
income  caused  Hawthorne  to  remove  from  Concord  to 
Salem,  where  in  1846  he  was  appointed  surveyor  of  the 
port.  Deprived  of  this  office  in  1849,  he  again  turned 
his  attention  to  literature,  and  wrote  "  The  Scarlet  Let- 
ter," the  book  which  made  him  famous. 

Other  Homes.  —  Soon  after  Hawthorne  completed 
"The  Scarlet  Letter,"  the  family  removed  to  Lenox, 
where  they  lived  in  a  little  house  which  Hawthorne 
called  "  the  red  shanty."  Here  he  wrote  "  The  House 
of  the  Seven  Gables,"  and  parts  of  "The  Wonder 
Book  "  and  "  Tanglewood  Tales."  While  boarding  at 
West  Newton,  during  the  winter  of  1851-52,  he  wrote 
"The  Blithedale  Romance."  Li  1852,  Hawthorne 
bonght  a  house  in  Concord.  He  called  his  new  home 
"  The  Wayside." 


BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHES.  363 

Consulship.  —  In  1853,  he  was  appointed  Consul  to 
Liverpool  by  President  Pierce.  While  living  in  Eng- 
land (1853-57)  he  collected  material  for  "  Our  Old 
Home  "'  —  a  book  of  sketches  of  English  life. 

PHuropeaii  Travels.  —  After  leaving  Liverpool,  he 
passed  three  years  upon  the  continent.  While  spend- 
ing a  winter  in  Florence,  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of 
"  The  Marble  Faun."  The  book  was  completed  at 
Redcar,  England,  and  was  published  in  that  country 
under  the  title  "Transformation." 

Return  to  America.  —  Li  1860,  Hawthorne  and  his 
family  returned  to  Concord,  Mass.  During  the  next 
four  years,  he  remained  at  "  The  Wayside."  His  lit- 
erary work  during  this  period  consisted  of  "  Septimius 
Felton,  or  the  Elixir  of  Life  " ;  "  The  Ancestral  Foot- 
step "  ;  and  "  Dr.  Grimshawe's  Secret."  The  last  two 
were  to  have  been  woven  into  a  new  novel,  "  The  Dol- 
liver  Romance,"  which  Hawthorne  was  to  contribute 
as  a  serial  to  "  The  Atlantic  Monthly."  Only  three 
chapters  were  completed. 

Death.  —  Hoping  to  benefit  his  failing  health,  Haw- 
thorne and  his  friend  ex-President  Pierce,  started  on  a 
carriage  drive  through  part  of  New  Hampshire.  They 
stopped  for  the  night  at  a  hotel  in  Plymouth,  N.H. 
Early  the  next  morning.  May  19,  t864,  Hawthorne  was 
found  dead  in  his  bed. 

Funeral.  —  May  23,  the  funeral  services  were  held 
at  his  old  home  in  Concord.  Among  those  present  were 
Longfellow,  Pierce,  Agassiz,  Fields,  Bridge,  Whittier, 
Emerson,  Lowell,  and  Holmes.     The  unfinished  "■  Dolli- 


364 


LESSONS   IN    ENGLISH, 


ver  Romance  "  lay  upon  the  coffin  during  the  services. 
The  manuscript  is  now  in  the  Concord  PubUc  Library. 
Longfellow's  poem,  "  Hawthorne,"  refers  to  the  funeral 
day. 


HAWTHORNE'S  WORKS. 


|p 


1851. 

1837. 
1846. 

1828. 
1850. 
18.51. 
18.52. 
1858. 


Published 


Books  for  Children. 


Grandfather's  Chair. 
Biographical  Stories 
The  Wonder  Book. 
Tangle-wood  Tales. 

Twice-Told  Tales.     2  vols. 

Mosses  from  an  Old  ]\lanse.     2  vols. 

Fanshawe.     Published  anonymously. 

The  Scarlet  Letter. 

The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 

The  Blithedale  Romance. 

The  Marble  Faun,  or  Transformation 

Septimius  Felton,  or  The  Elixir  of  Life 

The  DoUiver  Romance.     3  chapters. 

after         Dr.  Grimsha\ve''s  Secret.  )  o,    .  i 

<  ^  y  Sketches 

death.        ^T_i.-  r>--i—     J 


Short  Stories. 


Novels. 


The  Ancestral  Footstep.  ) 

Note-Books.    J  English.    (Our  Old  Home.) 


French,  American,  Italian. 


REFERENCES. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  His  Wife,  by  Julian  Hawthorne. 
Sketch  of  Hawthorne's  Life,  by  George  Parsons  Lathrop. 
A  Study  of  Hawthorne,  by  George  Parsons  Lathrop. 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  by  James  Russell  Lowell. 
Yesterdays  with  Authors,  by  James  T.  Fields. 
Hawthorne  among  His  Friends,  by  George  H.  Holden. 

Harper's,  July,  1881.     Vol.  LXIII.  p.  260. 
Scenes  of  Hawthorne's  Romances, ^  by  Julian  Hawthorne. 

Century,  July,  1884.     Vol.  XXVIII.  p.  380. 

1  Illustrated. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  365 

The  Salem  of  Hawthorne,^  by  Julian  Hawthorne. 
Century,  May,  1884.     Vol.  XXVIII.  p.  3. 

Scenes  from  the  Marble  Faun,^  by  W.  L.  Alden. 
Scribner's,  Sept.,  1871.     Vol.  II.  p.  493. 

Hawthorne's  Last  Bequest,  by  T.  W.  Higginson. 
Scribner's,  Nov.,  1872.     Vol.  V.  p.  100. 

Portrait  of  Hawthorne.    Harper's,  July,  1886. 

A  Look  into  Hawthorne's  Workshop,  by  Julian  Hawthorne. 
Century,  Jan.,  1883.     Vol.  XXV.  p.  433. 

Hawthorne,  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 
Atlantic,  July,  1864.     Vol.  XIV.  p.  98. 

Hawthorne  in  the  Boston  Custom  House.     [Letters.] 
Atlantic,  Jan.,  1868.     Vol.  XXI.  p.  106. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne,^  by  R.  H.  Stoddard. 
Harper's,  Oct.,  1872.     Vol.  XLV.  p.  683. 

The  Genius  of  Hawthorne,  by  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody. 
Atlantic,  Sept.,  1868.     Vol.  XXII.  p.  359. 

History  of  Hawthorne's  Last  Romance,  by  George  Parsons  Lathrop. 
Atlantic,  Oct.,  1872.     Vol.  XXX.  p.  452. 

English  Note-Books  of  Hawthorne,  by  C.  S.  Hillard. 

.  Atlantic,  Sept.,  1870.    Vol.  XXVI.  p.  257. 
Introduction  to  "  The  Scarlet  Letter." 
Introduction  to  "  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse." 

For  critical  references,  see  Welsh's  English  Masterpiece  Course, 
p.  184. 

QUESTIONS  rOE  EEVIEW. 

1.  When  and  where  was  Hawthorne  born? 

2.  Who  was  his  father? 

3.  Under  what  circumstances  did  his  father  die? 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  Hawthorne's  boyhood? 

5.  Who  was  his  teacher? 

6.  What  do  you  know  about  his  life  in  Maine? 

Illustrated. 


366  LESSO^is  m  English. 

7.  How  old  was  he  when  he  entered  college? 

8.  What  have  we  already  learned  about  this  class  of  1825, 

at  Bowdoin? 

9.  Was  he  a  good  scholar? 

10.  Did  he  show  literary  tastes  in  his  early  years? 

11.  What  can  you  say  of  his  habits  during  the  thirteen  years 

after  his  graduation  ? 

12.  What  literary  work  was  done  in  that  period? 

13.  Under  what  circumstances  did  Hawthorne  spend  two 

years  in  Boston? 

14.  Had  he  lived  there  before  ? 

15.  Where  and  what  was  "  Brook  Farm"? 

16.  When  and  whom  did  Hawthorne  marry? 

17.  Describe  the  home  to  which  he  took  his  bride. 

18.  How  many  children  had  he? 

19.  Why  did  he  return  to  Salem? 

20.  When  and  under  what  circumstances  was  "  The  Scarlet 

Letter''  written? 

21.  Why  did  he  move  to  Lenox? 

22.  What  books  were  written  at  "  the  red  shanty"? 

23.  Where  did  he  write  "  The  Blithedale  Romance"? 

24.  Describe  Hawthorne's  second  home  in  Concord. 

25.  What  foreign  appointment  did  he  receive? 

26.  How  long  did  he  remain  abroad? 

27.  What  books  were  written  during  this  time  ? 

28.  What  was  "  Transformation  "  ? 

29.  In  what  year  did  Hawthorne  return  to  America? 

30.  What  literary  work  did  he  do  in  the  next  four  years? 

31.  AVhat  was  "  The  Dolliver  Romance  "  ? 

32.  Do  you  know  anything  of  Hawthorne's  journe}-  to  Phila- 

delphia, in  the  spring  of  1864? 

33.  What  were  the  circumstances  of  Hawthorne's  death? 

34.  How  old  was  he  ? 

35.  When  and  where  did  he  die? 


BIOGEAPHICAL   SIvETCHES.  367 

36.  "What  can  you  tell  about  his  funeral? 

37.  Who  wrote  a  poem  about  it? 

38.  Where  is  his  grave  ? 

39.  Where  are  his  wife  and  daughter  brriedr 

40.  AYhat  can  you  say  of  Hawthorne's  character? 

41.  What  of  his  style  as  a  writer  ? 

42.  What  book  made  him  famous? 

43.  Upon  what  is  "  Septimius  Felton"  founded? 

44.  What  experience  of  his  suggested  "The  Blithedale  Ro- 

mance "  ? 

45.  What  can  you  say  of  his  "  Note-Books  "? 

46.  Who  were  some  of  his  friends? 

47.  What  was  the  fate  of  his  younger  sister? 

48.  How  do  you  account  for  the  change  of  spelling  in  the 

name  ' '  Hathorne  "  ? 


I 


368  LESSONS  m  English. 

OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLlVtES. 

Born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  29,  1809. 
Still  living,  at  Boston,  Mass. 

Home  Circle.  —  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  is  the  son 
of  the  Rev.  Abiel  Holmes,  pastor  of  the  First  Church  in 
Cambridge,  and  author  of  "  American  Annals,"  the  first 
careful  record  of  American  history  written  after  the 
Revolution.  The  author's  mother  was  the  daughter  of 
Hon.  Oliver  Wendell,  an  eminent  lawyer.  There  were 
two  sons  and  three  daughters  in  the  family. 

Early  Home.  —  Holmes's  birth-place  was  close  by 
Harvard  College,  and  opposite  the  Cambridge  Common. 
"  Upon  the  steps  of  this  house  stood  President  Langdon 
of  Harvard  College,  and  prayed  for  the  men,  who,  halt- 
ing there  a  few  moments,  marched  forward  under 
Colonel  Prescott's  lead,  to  throw  up  intrenchments  on 
Bunker's  Hill,  on  the  night  of  June  16,  1775."  The 
house,  which  was  formerly  called  "  the  Hastings  House," 
was  the  head-quarters  of  Gen.  Artemas  Ward  and  of 
the  Committee  of  Safety,  just  before  the  Revolution. 
It  was  but  a  few  minutes'  walk  from  the  homes  of  Low- 
ell and  Longfellow.  It  was  torn  down  in  1884,  to  make 
room  for  a  college  building. 

School  Life.  —  His  education  began  at  a  little  private 
school  in  the  neighborhood.  Afterwards  he  spent  five 
years  at  a  school  in  Cambridgeport.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen,  he  was  sent  to  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  to 
prepare  for  college.  Dr.  Holmes  says  of  himself,  "  I 
was  moderately  studious,  and  very  fond  of  reading 
stories,  which  I  sometimes  did  in  school  hours.     I  was 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  369 

fond  also  of  whispering,  and  my  desk  bore  sad  witness 
to  my  passion  for  whittling." 

College  Life.  —  Holmes  entered  Harvard  College  in 
the  class  of  1829.  Among  his  class-mates  referred  to 
in  his  poem  "  The  Boys  "  are  Benjamin  Pierce,  Rev. 
James  Freeman  Clarke,  and  Rev.  Samnel  F.  Smith, 
author  of  the  hymn,  "  My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee." 
Charles  Sumner,  and  Holmes's  cousin,  Wendell  Phillips, 
were  in  college  with  him,  but  in  lower  classes.  Holmes 
was  the  class  poet,  and  frequently  contributed  to  the 
college  papers.     He  had  a  high  rank  as  a  student. 

Professional  Studies. — After  his  graduation,  Holmes 
studied  law  at  Harvard  for  one  year.  Finding  that  he 
had  mistaken  his  profession,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
medicine,  which  he  studied  at  Harvard  for  two  years  and 
a  half,  and  then  continued  his  studies  at  Paris  and  Edin- 
burgh, returning  to  Harvard  to  take  his  degree  in  1836. 

Professorships.  —  In  1839,  Holmes  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  at  Dartmouth 
College,  but  remained  there  only  a  year  or  two,  resign- 
ing his  situation  in  order  to  devote  his  time  to  medical 
practice.  In  1847,  he  was  made  Professor  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  at  the  Harvard  Medical  College.  He 
resigned  this  position  in  1882,  but  was  retained  as  Pro- 
fessor Emeritus. 

Medical  Practice.  —  Holmes's  work  as  a  physician 
began  in  1836,  and  has  been  continued  since  then, 
in  connection  with  his  work  as  author,  lecturer,  and 
teacher.  During  most  of  this  time  he  has  lived  in 
Boston,  where  he  is  known  as  one  of  the  city's  most 
popular  and  successful  physicians. 


370  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Family.  —  In  1840,  Holmes  was  married  to  Miss 
Amelia  Lee  Jackson.  He  has  two  sons  and  one 
daughter. 

Literary    Career.  —  While   he   was   a   law-student, 

Holmes  contributed  to  the  "  Collegian  "  a  few  poems, 
among  which  were  :  — 

Evening  :  by  a  Tailor. 

The  Meeting  of  the  Dryads. 

The  Spectre  Pig. 

At  about  this  time  Holmes  published  "  Old  Ironsides," 
a  protest  against  the  proposed  breaking  up  of  the  frigate 
Constitution.  This  poem  was  printed  in  the  Boston 
"  Daily  Advertiser,"  and  attracted  much  attention. 
In  1857,  when  the  "Atlantic  Monthly"  was  established, 
Professor  Lowell  consented  to  edit  it,  only  on  condition 
that  Holmes  should  be  a  regular  contributor.  Since 
that  time,  many  of  Dr.  Holmes's  writings  have  made 
their  first  appearance  in  the  pages  of  this  magazine. 

Visit  to  Eng-lancl.  —  In  1886,  Dr.  Holmes  made  his 
second  voyage  to  Europe.  Accompanied  by  his  daughter, 
he  visited  many  places  of  interest,  particularly  in  Eng- 
land. The  great  universities  conferred  upon  him  honor- 
ary degrees,  and  he  was  everywhere  warmly  welcomed. 
"Our  Hundred  Days  in  Europe  "  is  a  charming  account 
of  his  travels. 

HOLMES'S   WORKS. 

Prose. 


1857.  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table. 

1859.  The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table. 

1871.  The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast  Table. 

1885.  The  New  Portfolio. 

1887.  Our  Hundred  Days  in  Euroi^e. 


Serials 

in 
Atlantic 
Monthly. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES. 


371 


1861.  Elsie  Tenner. 

18G7.  The  Guardian  Angel.    )-  Novels. 

1887.  A  Mortal  Antipathy. 

186-4.  Soundings  from  the  Atlantic. 

1871.  ]\Iechanism  in  Thoughts  and  Morals. 

1861.  Currents  and  Counter  Currents. 

1862.  Border  Lines  of  Knowledge. 
Memoir  of  John  Lothrop  ^Motley. 

1885.  Life  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 


Sketches  and 

Essays, 
Scientific 
Essays. 
Biographical 
Sketches. 


Poetry. 

1830-1849.     Early  Poems. 
1849-1861.     Songs  in  Many  Keys. 
1851-1877.     Poems  of  the  Class  of  '29. 
1862-1874.     Songs  of  Many  Seasons. 
1862-1874.     Songs  of  Many  Seasons. 
1880.     The  Iron  Gate,  and  Other  Poems. 
1888.     Before  the  Curfew,  and  Other  Poems. 

REFERENCES. 
Life  of  Holmes,  by  E.  E.  Brown. 
Life  of  Holmes,  by  W.  Sloane  Kennedy. 
Home  Life  of  Great  Authors,  by  H.  T.  Griswold. 
Homes  of  American  Authors,  by  G.  AV.  Curtis. 
Poets'  Homes,  by  R.  H.  Stoddard. 
Poets  of  America,  by  E.  C.  Stedman. 
American  Humorists,  by  Haweis. 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  by  E.  C.  Stedman.     With  Portrait. 

Century,  Feb.,  1885.     A^ol.  XXIX.  p.  50-3. 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,^  by  F.  H.  Underwood. 

Scrihner's,  May,  1879.     Vol.  XYIII.  p.  117. 
Cambridge  on  the  Charles,^  by  C.  F.  Richardson. 

Harper's,  Jan.,  1876.     Vol.  LII.  p.  191. 
The  Holmes  Breakfast.     Supplement  to  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  Feb., 

1880.     Vol.  XLV.  p.  289. 
Outlines  for  a  Study  of  Holmes,  Bryant,  and  Whittier.     [Leaflet.] 

For  critical  references,  see  Welsh's  English  Masterpiece  Course, 
p.  172. 

1  Illustrated. 


372  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

QUESTIONS   rOK  EEVIEW. 

1.  When  and  where  was  Holmes  born? 

2.  Who  was  his  father? 

3.  How  many  brothers  and  sisters  had  he? 

4.  What  is  the  history  of  his  birthplace? 

5.  What  other  authors  lived  near  him? 

6.  What  do  you  know  about  his  boyhood? 

7.  Where  did  he  attend  school? 

8.  What  does  he  tell  us  of  bis  school-days  ? 

9.  Where  was  Holmes  prepared  for  college? 

10.  How  old  was  he  when  he  entered  Harvard? 

11.  Name  other  famous  members  of  the  Class  of  '29. 

12.  What  do  you  know  about  any  of  them? 

13.  What  poem  contains  personal  references  to  his  class- 

mates ? 

14.  Who  was  Wendell  Phillips? 

15.  What  can  you  say  of  Holmes's  choice  of  a  profession? 

16.  What  are  some  of  the  poems  written  during  his  student 

life? 

17.  Where  did  he  study  medicine? 

18.  Which  of  his  humorous  poems  are  upon  medical  subjects  ? 

19.  When  did  he  take  the  degree  of  M.D.  ? 

20.  For  how  long  did  he  devote  his  time  to  practice? 

21.  What  appointment  did  he  receive  in  1839? 

22.  How  long  did  he  remain  there? 

23.  When  and  whom  did  he  marry? 

24.  Where  and  how  did  he  spend  the  next  six  years? 

25.  When  did  he  become  professor  at  Harvard? 

26.  Did  he  continue  his  medical  practice? 

27.  When  did  he  resign  his  professorship  at  Harvard? 

28.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "  Professor  Emeritus"? 

29.  What  can  you  say  about  his  home? 

30.  How  many  children  has  he  ? 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  373 

31.  Why  is  he  so  often  called  "  The  Autocrat "? 

32.  What  does  the  word  mean? 

33.  What  do  you  know  about  "The  Breakfast-Table  Series "  ? 

34.  What  is  the  history  of  the  poem  "  Old  Ironsides  "  ? 

35.  How  many  times  has  Holmes  been  abroad? 

36.  What  honors  did  he  receive  in  England? 

37.  What  can  you  say  of  him  as  a  physician? 

38.  What  of  his  reputation  as  a  lecturer? 

39.  What  of  his  character  and  habits?         « 

40.  What  of  his  style  as  a  writer? 

41.  What   poems  has  he  written  about  any  of  the  other 

authors  ? 

42.  What  are  some  of  his  best-known  poems? 


374  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

JAMES   RUSSELL   LOWELL. 

Born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  22,  1819. 

Still  living  in  Cambridge,    .fi   .  ^     i:  < 

Home  Circle.  —  James  Russell  Lowell  is  the  youngest 
child  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  Lowell.  There  were  two 
other  sons  and  two  daughters. 

Home.  —  Except  during  his  residence  abroad,  Lowell 
has  always  lived  at  "Elmwood,"  the  house  in  which  he 
was  born.  The  house  was  built  by  Peter  Oliver,  a 
stamp  distributer,  just  before  the  Revolution.  It  was 
afterwards  occupied  by  Elbridge  Gerry,  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States.  The  poet's  father  bought  the 
place  in  1818.  It  is  not  far  from  Longfellow's  home, 
and  the  extensive  grounds  reach  almost  to  the  gate  of 
Mt.  Auburn  Cemetery. 

School  Life.  —  Lowell  first  attended  a  private  school 
which  was  held  in  the  house  next  to  "  Elmwood."  He 
was  prepared  for  college  at  a  classical  scliool  in  Boston. 
From  his  mother  he  inherited  a  love  for  the  beautiful, 
and  a  passion  for  old  legends  and  ballads.  He  was  fond 
of  reading,  but  did  not  enjoy  hard  work  in  arithmetic 
and  algebra. 

College  Life.  —  In  his  sixteenth  year,  Lowell  was 
admitted  to  Harvard  College,  and  was  graduated  in 
1838.  Among  his  class-mates  was  William  W.  Story, 
the  sculptor  and  poet.  The  Rev.  Edward  Everett  Hale 
was  in  the  class  following.  Lowell  was  the  class  poet, 
but  did  not  take  a  high  rank  as  a  student.  He  says 
that,  while  in  college,  he  read  almost  everything  except 
the  prescribed  text-books. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  375 

Law  Studies.  —  After  leaving  college,  Lowell  entered 
the  Harvard  Law  School,  completing  the  course  in  1840. 
He  opened  an  office  in  Boston,  but  did  not  seriously 
engage  in  practice,  preferring  to  devote  his  time  to 
literary  work. 

Literary  Career.  —  When  in  his  twenty-second  year, 
Lowell  published  his  first  volume  of  poems,  "  A  Year's 
Life."  From  time  to  time,  he  wrote  essavs  for  "  The 
Boston  Miscellany,"  and  contributed  prose  and  verse  to 
"Putnam's  Monthly."  A  second  volume  of  poems  ap- 
peared in  1844.  In  1845,  he  published  a  book  of  essays 
entitled  "  Conversations  on  the  Poets."  "The  Vision 
of  Sir  Launfal"  was  written  in  1847.  In  1849,  Lowell's 
poems  were  collected  and  published  in  two  volumes. 
"  The  Biglow  Papers,"  in  two  volumes,  published  in 
1846  and  1861,  are  written  in  the  Yankee  dialect  and 
contain  fine  specimens  of  Lowell's  humor.  Most  of 
Lowell's  later  writings  have  been  published  in  "  The 
Atlantic  Monthly." 

Editorial  Work.  —  In  1843,  Lowell,  in  partnership 
with  Robert  Carter,  undertook  to  edit  and  publish  a 
magazine,  "The  Pioneer,"  Only  three  numbers  were 
issued.  Poe's  poem,  "Lenore,"and  Whittier's  "Lines 
Written  in  the  Book  of  a  Friend,"  appeared  in  these 
pages,  as  did  also  two  stories  by  Hawthorne.  Lowell 
was  editor  of  "The  Atlantic  Monthly  "from  1857  to 
1862,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  James  T.  Fields. 

Lectures.  —  In  the  winter  of  1854-55,  Lowell  delivered 
a  course  of  twelve  lectures  on  "English  P.  etry,"  at 
the  Lowell  Institute  in  Boston. 


376  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Professorship.  —  In  1854,  he  succeeded  Longfellow 
as  Professor  of  Belles-lettres  at  Harvard  College,  hav- 
ing leave  of  absence  for  two  years,  to  prepare  for  his 
work.  He  studied  in  Europe,  chiefly  in  Dresden.  He 
still  holds  the  rank  of  professor  in  the  college. 

Family.  —  Lowell's  first  wife  was  Miss  Maria  White. 
Their  marriage  occurred  in  1844.  In  1851,  they  spent 
more  than  a  year  abroad,  visiting  Switzerland,  France, 
and  England,  but  living  for  the  most  part  in  Italy. 
Mrs.  Lowell  died  in  October,  1853,  on  the  same  night 
on  which  one  of  Longfellow's  children  was  born. 
Longfellow's  poem,  "  The  Two  Angels,"  refers  to  this 
coincidence.  In  1857,  Lowell  was  married  to  his 
second  wife,  Miss  Frances  Dunlap,  of  Portland,  Maine. 
The  second  Mrs.  Lowell  died  in  England,  in  1885. 

Several  children  died  in  infancy.  References  to  them 
will  be  found  in  the  poems,  "She  Came  and  Went," 
"  The  Changeling,"  and  "  The  First  Snow-Fall."  His 
only  surviving  child  is  a  daughter. 

Public  Offices. —  In  1877,  Lowell  was  appointed  mhi- 
ister  to  Spain,  by  President  Hayes.  In  1879,  he  was 
transferred  to  London,  and  was  retained  as  minister  to 
England  until  the  beginning  of  President  Cleveland's 
administration. 

LOWELL'S   WORKS. 

Prose. 

1845.     Conversations  on  the  Poets.  ?  Mainly 

1871,  1876.     Among  My  Books.     2  vols.  S  Literary  Criticisms. 
1864.     Fireside  Travels.     A  series  of  letters  to  his  friend  Story. 
1870.     My  Study  Windows.     Sketches  and  Essays. 

1887.  Democracy  and  Other  Addresses. 

1888.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne.     Amei'ican  Men  of  Letters. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  377 

Poetry. 

1842.  A  Year's  Life. 

1849.  Poems.     2  vols. 

1846.  Biglow  Papers.     1st  Series.     On  the  Mexican  War. 
1801.  Biglow  Papers.    2d  Series.     On  Secession. 

1847.  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 

1848.  A  Fable  for  Critics.     Published  anonymously,  and  contain- 

ing descriptions  of  American  authors. 

1869.  Under  the  Willows,  and  Other  Poems. 

1870.  The  Cathedral. 
1888.     Heartsease  and  Eue. 

f  Commemoration  Ode,  in  memory  of  the 
July  21,  1865.     -;      Harvard  students  who  lost  their  lives  in 
(     the  War  for  the  Union. 
Four   1  April  19,  1875.      Centennial  of  Battle  of  Concord. 
^^^S'  r  Under  the  Old  Elm.    Centennial  celebra- 

July  3,  1875.      <      tion    of  "Washington's  assuming  com- 

(      mand  of  the  American  Army. 
.July  4,  1876.         Centennial  of  American  Independence. 

REFERENCES. 
Life  of  Lowell,!  by  F.  H.  Underwood. 
Life  of  Lowell,  by  E.  E.  Brown. 
Home  Life  of  Great  Authors,  by  H.  T.  Griswold. 
Homes  of  American  Authors,  by  G.  W.  Curtis. 
Poets'  Homes,  by  R.  H.  Stoddard. 
James  Russell  Lowell,^  by  F.  H.  Underwood. 

Harper's,  Jan.,  1881.'  Vol.  LXII.  p.  2.52. 
James  Russell  Lowell,  by  E.  C.  Stedman. 

Century,  May,  1882.     Vol.  XXIV.  p.  97. 
Poets  of  America,  by  E.  C.  Stedman. 
Cambridge  on  the  Charles,^  by  C.  F.  Richardson. 

Harper's,  Jan.,  1876.     Vol.  LII.  p.  206. 
James  Russell  Lowell.     Outline  Studies.     [Unity  Leaflet,  No.  8.] 
Portrait  of  Lowell,  with  Sketch  of  Life  and  Works. 

Harper's  Weekly,  June  20,  1885. 

For  critical  references,  see  Welsh's  English  Masterpiece  Course, 

p.  167. 

1  Illustrated. 


378  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH. 

QUESTIONS   rOK  EEVIEW. 

1.  "When  and  where  was  Lowell  born? 

2.  Who  was  his  father? 

3.  How  many  brothers  and  sisters  had  he? 

4.  Give  the  history  of  "  Elm  wood." 

5.  Which  of  the  other  authors  have  lived  in  the  neighbor- 

hood ? 

6.  Where  did  Lowell  first  attend  school? 

7.  Where  was  he  fitted  for  college  ? 

8.  How  old  was  he  when  he  entered  Harvard? 

9.  In  what  year  was  he  graduated? 

10.  What  do  you  know  about  any  of  his  class-mates? 

11.  What  early  association  between   Lowell  and   the  Rev. 

Edward  Everett  Hale  ? 

12.  Can  you  name  any  books  written  by  the  latter? 

13.  What  can  you  say  of  Lowell  as  a  law  student? 

14.  When  did  he  publish  his  first  book? 

15.  What  was  its  character  ? 

16.  Mention  some  of  the  periodicals  to  which  he  has  con- 

tributed. 

17.  What  magazine  did  he  edit  in  1843? 

18.  Who  were  some  of  the  contributors? 

19.  When  and  whom  did  he  marry? 

20.  When  did  he  write  "  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal " 

21.  What  can  you  say  of  his  first  visit  to  Europe? 

22.  What  do  you  know  about  Lowell's  children? 

23.  What  poems  refer  to  them  ? 

24.  What  sorrow  is  referred  to  in  Longfellow's  poem  "  The 

Two  Angels  "  ? 

25.  When  did  this  event  happen? 

26.  What  appointment  did  he  receive  in  the  following  year? 

27.  Whom  did  he  succeed  in  this  position? 

28.  When  and  why  did  he  make  a  second  visit  abroad? 


BIOGKAPHICAL  SKETCHES.  379 

29.  "What  can  you  say  of  him  as  a  lecturer? 

30.  AVhen  did  he  become  editor  of  "  The  Atlantic  Monthly  "  ? 

31.  What  other  important  event  happened  in  the  same  year? 

32.  Under  what  circumstances  did  he  go  to  Europe  in  1877? 

33.  Wliy  did  he  leave  Spain? 

34.  How  long  did  he  live  in  England? 

35.  When  did  the  second  Mrs.  Lowell  die? 

36.  What  can  you  say  about  Lowell's  home? 

37.  How  long  did  he  edit  "  The  Atlantic  Monthly  "? 

38.  Who  succeeded  him  as  editor? 

39.  What  is  the  character  of  "  The  Biglow  Papers  "  ? 

40.  What  are  some  of  the  most  popular  of  his  short  poems? 

41.  How  many  of   these   seven  authors   are   mentioned   in 

"The  Fable  for  Critics"? 

42.  What  do  you  know  of  Lowell  as  a  man? 

43.  What  of  his  style  as  a  writer? 

44.  Mention  some   memorable  occasions  for  which  he  has 

written  poems. 

45.  What  do  you  know  about  the  Washington  Elm? 

46.  How  is  his  friend  Story  associated  with  one  of  his  prose 

works  ? 


380  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH. 

WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT. 

Born  at  Cummington,  Mass.,  Nov.  3,  1794. 

Died  at  New  York,  June  12,  1878. 

Buried  at  Roslyn,  Long  Island,  June  14,  1878. 

Home  Circle.  —  William  Ciillen  Bryant  was  the 
second  son  of  Dr.  Peter  Bryant,  of  North  Bridgewater, 
Mass.  "Cullen,"  as  he  was  called  by  the  family,  had 
four  brothers  and  two  sisters. 

Boyhood.  —  Bryant's  boyhood  was  spent  in  Cum- 
mington, partly  in  the  house  in  which  he  was  born  and 
partly  in  what  is  known  as  "  The  Bryant  Homestead," 
formerly  the  residence  of  his  grandfather.  He  was  a 
very  delicate  child,  and  his  friends  feared  that  he  would 
not  live  to  grow  up ;  but  after  reaching  his  sixteenth 
year,  he  became  strong  and  vigorous,  and,  during  the 
rest  of  his  long  life,  his  health  was  perfect.  He  was 
regarded  as  very  precocious,  having  learned  his  alphabet 
when  lie  was  only  sixteen  months  old ;  but  he  modestly 
tells  us  in  his  autobiography  that  he  was  not  as  for- 
ward as  his  elder  brother  Austin,  who  had  read  the 
Bible  through  before  he  had  completed  his  fourth  year ! 
Bryant's  father,  although  a  hard-working  country  doc- 
tor, in  very  moderate  circumstances,  was  fond  of  read- 
ing, and  had  what  was,  in  those  days,  a  large  library. 
He  took  much  interest  in  the  education  of  his  children. 
The  family  lived  at  a  considerable  distance  from  other 
houses,  and  there  was  little  social  enjoyment  outside 
their  own  household ;  consequently,  books  became  their 
companions,  and  even  their  games  grew  out  of  their 
reading.  Bryant  tells  us  that  when  he  and  his  elder 
brother  had  read  Pope's  translation  of  the  Iliad,  they 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES.  381 

made  for  themselves  wooden  shields,  swords,  and  spears, 
and  fashioned  helmets  out  of  old  hats,  with  tow  for 
plumes ;  then,  in  the  old  barn  they  "  fought  the  battles 
of  the  Greeks  and  Trojans  over  again." 

School  Life.  —  Bryant's  early  education  was  received 
in  the  district  school  at  Cummington,  and  from  his 
father  at  home.  It  having  been  decided  that  he  should 
go  to  college,  he  was  sent  in  his  fifteenth  year,  to  study 
Latin  with  his  uncle,  at  North  Brookfield,  where  he 
spent  eight  months.  Soon  after,  he  spent  a  few  months 
in  the  study  of  Greek  and  Mathematics  with  Rev.  Moses 
Hallock  of  Plainfield,  who  had  a  great  reputation  for 
his  success  in  preparing  boys  for  college.  After  study- 
ing Greek  for  two  months,  Bryant  could  read  the  New 
Testament  from  beginning  to  end  almost  as  well  in 
Greek  as  he  could  in  English.  The  rest  of  his  prepara- 
tion for  college  was  made  at  home,  without  any  teacher. 

College  Life.  —  In  order  to  save  expense,  Bryant  did 
by  himself  all  the  work  required  for  the  first  year  at 
college,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Sophomore  class  at 
Williams  College,  in  1810.  The  course  of  study  was 
then  very  meager,  and  the  entire  faculty  consisted  of  the 
president,  one  professor,  and  two  tutors.  Bryant's  room- 
mate, wishing  to  avail  himself  of  better  advantages  than 
were  offered  at  Williams  College,  resolved  to  leave  and 
enter  Yale.  Dr.  Bryant  consented  that  his  son  should 
take  the  same  step ;  so,  having  received  an  honorable 
dismission  from  Williams  College,  the  young  Sopho- 
more returned  home  to  prepare  for  entering  the  Junior 
class  at  Yale.  This  plan  was  not  carried  out,  as  Dr. 
Bryant  felt  that  he  could  not  afford  the  greater  expense 


382  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

involved.  Thus  it  happened  that  Bryant's  college  life 
lasted  but  seven  months,  although  he  afterwards  re- 
ceived the  honor  of  having  his  name  enrolled  among  the 
alumni  of  Williams  College. 

Early  Literary  Career.  —  His  first  attempts  at  writing 
verse  were  made  when  he  was  but  eight  years  old.  Two 
years  later,  he  composed  a  poem  describing  the  school 
which  he  then  attended,  and  recited  it  at  the  school 
exliibition.  It  was  printed  in  the  county  newspaper, 
"The  Hampshire  Gazette."  Before  he  was  thirteen 
years  old  he  wrote  a  poem  about  the  solar  eclipse  of 
June,  1806,  and  paraphrases  of  the  first  chapter  of  Job 
and  of  one  of  the  Psalms.  In  1808,  just  before  his  four- 
teenth birthday,  a  political  poem  which  he  had  written 
was  published  at  Boston  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  The 
Embargo ;  or.  Sketches  of  the  Times,  A  Satire  :  by  a 
Youth  of  Thirteen."  A  second  edition  was  published 
the  next  year,  the  book  containing  additional  poems. 
"  Thanatopsis  "  was  written  before  its  author  was  nine- 
teen years  old.  It  was  revised  and  extended  before  its 
publication  in  1816.  It  has  been  called  "  the  greatest 
poem  ever  written  by  so  y@ung  a  man." 

Professional  Studies.  —  It  was  originally  intended 
that  Bryant  should  study  medicine,  as  his  father,  grand- 
father, and  great-grandfather  had  done  before  him  ;  but 
it  was  finally  decided  that  he  should  devote  himself  to 
the  law.  He  studied  with  Judge  Howe  of  Worthington, 
and  later  with  another  lawj^er  at  Bridgewater.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-one  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
opened  an  office  in  Plainfield,  where  he  remained  for 
eight  months;  then  went  into  partnership  with  another 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  383 

young  lawyer  in  Great  Barrington.  In  1824,  he  aban- 
doned the  law  and  devoted  all  his  time  to  literary  work. 
Soon  afterwards,  he  removed  his  family  to  New  York. 

Editorial  Duties.  —  Bryant's  work  as  an  editor  began 
in  1826,  when  he  joined  several  friends  in  publishing  a 
magazine  called  "  The  New  York  Review,"  but  which 
was  afterwards  known  as  "  The  United  States  Review." 
In  1828,  he  became  editor  of  the  "New  York  Evening 
Post,"  a  position  which  he  held  for  nearly  fifty  years, 
and  in  connection  with  which  most  of  his  literary  work 
was  done. 

Lectures.  —  In  1825,  he  delivered  a  series  of  lectures 
on  "  Poetry  "  before  the  Athenaeum  Society.  For  five 
successive  years,  beginning  in  1827,  he  gave  a  course  of 
lectures  on  "  Mythology,"  before  the  Academy  of  De- 
sign. In  later  years,  he  was  frequently  called  upon  to 
deliver  orations  upon  occasions  of  public  interest.  One 
of  the  most  famous  of  these  addresses  was  a  memorial 
of  Washington  Irving,  delivered  in  1860,  before  the 
New  York  Historical  Society. 

Family.  —  In  1821,  Bryant  was  married  to  Miss 
Frances  Fairchild  of  Great  Barrington.  They  had  two 
daughters.  Mrs.  Bryant  died  in  1866.  Among  the 
poems  which  contain  references  to  her  are  the  follow- 
ing :  — 

Oh  Fairest  of  the  Rural  Maids. 

The  Future  Life. 

The  Life  That  Is. 

The  Twenty-seventh  of  March. 

The  Cloud  on  the  Way. 

The  Sick-Bed. 

October,  1866. 


384  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 

Homes.  —  In  1843,  lie  bought  an  estate  at  Roslyn, 
Long  Island,  where  he  spent  most  of  the  summers  of 
his  remaining  years.  The  place  was  called  "Cedar- 
mere."  In  1865,  he  purchased  the  old  homestead  at 
Cummington,  rebuilt  the  house,  preserving  its  original 
features  as  far  as  was  possible,  and  built  near  it  a  cot- 
tage for  his  married  daughter,  who  had  also  a  home  at 
Roslyn  adjoining  his  own.  It  was  his  custom  to  spend 
the  late  summer  and  early  autumn  at  Cummington. 
During  the  winters,  he  resided  in  New  York. 

Travels. — Besides  two  journeys  through  the  South, 
two  voyages  to  Cuba,  and  a  tour  through  Mexico,  Bry- 
ant made  six  voyages  to  Europe.  Letters  written  dur- 
ing his  travels  were  published  in  the  "New  York  Even- 
ing Post"  and  afterwards  collected  in  book  form.  His 
first  visit  to  Europe  was  made  with  his  family  in  1834. 
Being  obliged  to  return  earlier  than  he  anticipated,  he 
left  his  family  at  Heidelberg,  where  they  met  Longfellow. 
The  second  and  third  visits,  made  in  1845  and  1849  respec- 
tively, were  pleasure  tours  with  a  friend.  In  the  second, 
he  visited  Wordsworth.  In  1852,  he  visited  Egypt  and 
Syria.  His  fifth  voyage,  in  1857,  was  made  mainly  on 
account  of  the  health  of  Mrs.  Bryant,  who,  with  her 
younger  daughter,  accompanied  him.  In  Rome,  he  met 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne.  After  the  death  of  Mrs.  Bry- 
ant, in  1866,  he  again  went  abroad  with  his  daughter, 
visiting  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  Wales,  and  England. 

Birthday  Celebrations.  —  The  seventieth  birthday 
of  Bryant  was  celebrated  by  the  Century  Club  in  New 
York.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  read  a  poem,  and 
Whittier,  who  could  not  be  present,  sent  the  lines  en- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  385 

titled  "Bryant  on  His  Birthday."  For  his  eightieth 
birthday,  his  friends  subscribed  for  a  silver  vase  whicli 
was  presented  to  him  with  a  written  address  signed  by 
thousands  of  names. 

Death.  —  On  the  afternoon  of  May  29,  1878,  Bryant 
delivered  his  last  address,  at  the  unveiling  of  the  statue 
to  Mazzini,  in  Central  Park.  As  he  stood  with  un- 
covered head,  the  heat  so  overcame  him  that  shortly 
after,  as  he  was  about  to  enter  a  friend's  house,  he  fell 
backward,  striking  his  head  upon  the  stone  steps.  He 
was  taken  to  his  home,  where,  after  two  weeks  of  semi- 
unconsciousness,  he  died,  at  the  age  of  eighty-four. 

Funeral.  —  Among  those  present  at  the  funeral  were 
Longfellow  and  Holmes.  At  the  cemetery  in  Roslyn, 
selections  from  Bryant's  poems  were  read  by  his  brother 
John.  The  poet  was  laid  to  rest  by  the  side  of  his  wife, 
and  his  grave  was  filled  with  flowers  by  the  children  of 
the  schools. 

BRYANT'S   WORKS. 

Prose. 

1852.     Letters  of  a  Traveller.     Originally  published  in  the  "New 

York  Evening  Post." 
1869.     Letters  from  the  East. 
1873.     Orations  and  Addresses. 

Poetry. 

1808.     The  Embargo. 

18-21.  Poems.  Including  "  Thanatopsis,"  "The  Ages,"  "To  a 
Waterfowl,"  "  Inscription  for  the  Entrance  to  a  "Wood," 
"  The  Yellow  Violet,"  and  three  others. 

1831.  Poems.  Including  "A  Forest  Hymn,"  "The  Death  of  the 
Flowers,"  "  The  African  Chief,"  and  "  To  the  Fringed 
Gentian."  This  collection  was  published  in  England, 
with  an  Introduction  by  Washington  Irving. 


386  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

1842.     The  Fountain,  and  Other  Poems. 

1844.     The  White-Footed  Deer,  and  Other  Poems. 

1864.     Thirty  Poems.     Including  "Sella"  and  "  The  Little  People 

of  the  Snow,"  etc. 
1876.     Complete  Illustrated  Edition  of  Poems. 

The  "  Ode  to  Washington  "  was  his  last  poem. 

Works  Edited  by  Bryant. 

1832.     Tales  of  the  Glauber  Spa.     2  vols. 
1870.     Library  of  Poetry  and  Song. 

Picturesque  America.     2  vols. 

School  History  of  the  United  States.    4  vols. 

Edition  of  Shakespeare.     (Not  yet  published.) 

Translations. 

1870.  The  Iliad. 

1871.  The  Odyssey. 

REFERENCES. 

Life  of  Bryant,  by  Parke  Godwin. 

Preface  to  Complete  Edition  of  Bryant's  Poems. 

Preface  to  Memorial  Edition  of  Library  of  Poetry  and  Song. 

The  Bryant  Homestead  Book. 

Life  of  Bryant,  by  David  J.  Hill. 

Sketch  and  Study  of  Bryant's  Works,  by  Symington. 

Home  Life  of  Great  Authors,  by  H.  T.  Griswold. 

Homes  of  American  Authors,  by  Mrs.  Kirkland. 

Memorial  Pamphlet  published  by  the  New  York  Evening  Post. 

Poets'  Homes,  by  R.  H.  Stoddard. 

Poets  of  America,  by  E.  C.  Stedman. 

Outlines  for  a  Study  of  Holmes,  Bryant,  and  Whittier.     [Leaflet.] 

The  Boys  of  Mj  Boyhood,  by  William  Cullen  Bryant. 

St.  Nicholas,  Dec,  1876. 
William  Cullen  Bryant,^  by  George  Ripley. 

Harper's,  April,  1851.     Vol.  II.  p.  581. 

1  Illustrated, 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  387 

William  Cullen  Bryan t,^  by  Horatio  X.  Powers. 

Century,  Aug.,  1878.     Vol.  XVI.  p.  479. 
William  Cullen  Bryant,  by  James  Wynne. 

Harper's,  March,  1862.     Vol.  XXIV.  p.  509. 
The  Bryant  Vase,i  by  Samuel  Osgood. 

Harper's,  July,  1876.     Vol.  LIII.  p.  245. 
Bryant,  by  G.  S.  Hillard.     Atlantic,  Feb.,  1864.    Vol.  XTTI.  p.  233. 

For  critical  references,  see  Welsh's  English  Masterpiece  Course, 
p.  164. 

QUESTIONS  FOE  EEVIEW. 

1.  When  and  where  was  Bryant  born? 

2.  Who  was  his  father? 

3.  How  many  brothers  and  sisters  had  be? 

4.  What  can  3'ou  say  of  his  boyhood? 

5.  Of  bis  early  literary  tastes? 

6.  Where  did  be  attend  school? 

7.  When  and  where  did  be  prepare  for  college? 

8.  What  can  you  sa}'  of  bim  as  a  scholar? 

9.  When  and  where  did  he  enter  college? 

10.  How  long  did  he  remain?     In  what  class? 

11.  Wh}^  did  he  not  complete  the  course? 

12.  At  what  age  did  he  begin  to  make  verses? 

13.  What  can  you  say  of  bis  early  poems? 

14.  How  old  was  be  when  be  wrote  "  Thanatopsis  "? 

15.  For  what  profession  was  Bryant  educated? 

16.  With  whom  did  be  study? 

17.  Where  and  bow  long  did  be  practice? 

18.  What  magazine  did  he  edit? 

19.  What  can  you  say  of  bis  connection  with  the  "New  York 

Evening  Post "  ? 

20.  What  lectures  did  he  deliver? 

21.  What  can  you  say  of  bis  public  addresses? 

22.  When  and  whom  did  be  marry? 

1  Illustrated. 


388  LESSONS  m  ekglish. 

23.  Mention  some  of  his  poems  which  refer  to  his  wife. 

24.  How  many  children  had  he? 

25.  When  did  he  make  his  first  voyage  to  Europe? 

26.  Who  accompanied  him? 

27.  What  American  author  did  he  meet  in  Germany? 

28.  How  long  was  this  after  he  became  editor  of  the  "Post" ? 

29.  Where  and  what  was  "  Cedarmere  "? 

30.  How  many  voyages  to  Europe  did  Bryant  make  ? 

31.  What  can  j'ou  say  of  other  journeys? 

32.  What  books  contain  records  of  his  travels? 

33.  When  did  he  visit  Egypt  and  Syria? 

34.  When  did  he  visit  Wordsworth  ?     Where  ? 

35.  Who  was  Wordsworth? 

36.  Mention  any  of  Wordsworth's  works. 

37.  When  and  why  did  Bryant  go  abroad  for  the  fifth  time? 

38.  Who  accompanied  him? 

39.  Where  did  he  meet  Hawthorne? 

40.  What  book  was  the  latter  then  writing? 

41.  When  did  Bryant  purchase  the  old  homestead? 

42.  How  did  he  divide  his  time  among  his  homes? 

43.  When  did  Mrs.  Bryant  die? 

44.  How  soon  afterward  did  he  make  his  last  visit  to  Europe  ? 

45.  What  can  you  say  of  this  journey? 

46.  How  old  was  he  then? 

47.  Give  an  account  of  two  birthday  celebrations. 

48.  When  did  he  lagt  appear  in  public? 

49.  What  was  the  cause  of  his  death? 

50.  When  and  where  did  he  die  ? 

51.  How  old  was  he? 

52.  What  do  you  know  about  the  funeral? 

53.  Where  is  his  grave  ? 

54.  What  is  his  best-known  work? 

55.  What  can  you  say  of  him  as  a  man? 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHES.  389 


MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS. 

1 .  Arrange  the  names  of  the  authors  in  chronological  order. 

2.  Give  the  date  of  birth  of  each. 

3.  Which  of  them  were  born  in  Massachusetts? 

4.  In  what  states  were  the  others  born? 

5.  Which   two  were   descended   from  John  and   Priscilla 

Alden  ? 

6.  AVhich  studied  law  ? 

7.  How  many  of  these  really  engaged  in  practice? 

8.  Which  have  been  teachers?     Where? 

9.  Which  have  edited  newspapers ?    What? 

10.  Which  have  edited  magazines?     What? 

11.  What  were  the  occupations  of  their  fathers? 

12.  Which  of  them  gave  in  boyhood  promise  of  future  emi- 

nence? 

13.  AVhich  were   college   graduates?     From  what   college? 

In  what  class  ? 

14.  How  many  visits  to  Europe  has  each  made? 

15.  Which  were  class  poets  ? 

16.  What  other  would  have  received  the  honor  but  for  his 

high  rank  ? 

17.  Which  remained  unmarried? 

18.  Name  the  wives  of  the  others. 

19.  How  many  children  had  each? 

20.  Which  of  these  authors  are  dead?     When  did  they  die? 

21.  Where  are  they  buried? 

22.  Which  have  been  foreign  ministers? 

23.  When,  where,  and  under  what  circumstances  did  Irving 

and  Longfellow  meet  in  Europe  ? 

24.  Where  did  Longfellow  meet  Bryant  while  abroad? 

25.  AVhich  two  of  the  authors  met  in  Rome  in  1857? 

26.  Which  two  were  abroad  together  in  1886? 

27.  What  association  between  Hawthorne  and  Longfellow? 


390  LESSONS   IN  ENGLISH. 

28.  Between  Lowell  and  Longfellow? 

29.  Which  three  lived  in  Cambridge,  near  Harvard  College? 

30.  What  and  where  were  "  Cedarmere,"  "The  AVayside," 

"Oak  Knoll,"  "  Sunnyside,"  "Elmwood,"  "The 
Craigie  House,"  "The  Hastings  House,"  "The  Old 
Manse,"  "The  Bryant  Homestead,"  "The  Red 
Shanty  " ? 

31 .  Did  General  Washington  ever  meet  his  namesake,  Wash- 

ington Irving? 

32.  What  other  association  between  the  two? 

33.  What  association  between  Washington  and  Longfellow? 

34.  Between  Washington  and  Lowell? 

35.  Who  suggested  the  writing  of  "  Evangeline  "? 

36.  Of  "  Bracebridge  Hall"? 

37.  What  does  ' '  Outre-Mer  "  mean  ? 

38.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "  Salmagundi  "  ? 

39.  How  did  Irving  advertise  his  "  History  of  New  York  "? 

40.  What  books  did  Hawthorne  write  for  children  ? 

41.  Why  did  Longfellow  write  "  Hyperion"? 

42.  What  works  did  Hawthorne  and  Longfellow  publish  in 

the  year  before  the  death  of  Irving  ? 

43.  What  serials  did  Holmes  contribute  to  "The  Atlantic 

Monthly  "  ? 

44.  What  volumes  were  published  b}'  Longfellow  and  Whit- 

tier  in  1866? 

45.  What  poem  of  Whittier's  refers  to  an  incident  of  the 

"dark  day"  of  1780? 

46.  What  poem  of  Lowell's  refers  to  an  incident  of  the  bat- 

tle of  Concord? 

47.  What  famous  birthday  celebrations  can  you  mention? 

48.  What  has  been  written  about  each  of  these  authors  by 

any  of  the  others? 

49.  Which  are  your  favorites  among  the  authors?     Why? 

50.  Name  the  author  of  each  of  the  following  :  — 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES. 


391 


Letters  of  a  Traveller. 

Tales  of  a  Traveller. 

The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 

Voices  of  the  Night. 

Under  the  Willows. 

The  Scarlet  Letter. 

The  Little  People  of  the  Snow. 

Elsie  Venner. 

Mabel  Martin. 

The  Guardian  Angel. 

A  Forest  Hynui. 

Dr.  Grimshawe's  Secret. 

Conversations  on  the  Poets. 

The  King's  Missive. 

The  Death  of  the  Flowers. 


The  Tent  on  the  Beach. 

Life  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith. 

Voices  of  Freedom. 

Songs  in  Many  Keys. 

Fireside  Travels. 

The  Alhambra. 

Twice-Told  Tales. 

A  Fable  for  Critics. 

The  Golden  Legend. 

Legends  of  New  England. 

The  Hanging  of  the  Crane. 

Thanatopsis. 

Birds  of  Passage. 

Grandfather's  Chair. 


892  LESSONS   IN   ENGLISH. 


PROGRAMME 


FOB 


CELEBRATION  OF  LONGFELLOW'S   BIRTHDAY. 


Hillhouse  High.  School,  Feb.  27,  1885. 

The  following  programme  for  the  celebration  of 
Longfellow's  Birthday  will  suggest  how  these  biograph- 
ical sketches  may  be  made  available  in  commemorating 
the  birthdays  of  other  authors.  If  circumstances  per- 
mit, singing  may  be  introduced,  the  selections  being 
some  of  the  poems  wliich  have  been  set  to  music. 

1.  Longfellow's  Boyhood. 

The  recitation  closes  with  a  reference  to  Longfellow's  state- 
ment that  he  often  stopped  to  watch  the  old  potter  at  his 
work,  going  back  and  forth  under  the  branches  of  a  great 
tree. 

2.  Selection  from  "  Keramos." 

First  three  stanzas ;  then  the  next  two  stanzas  which  are 
printed  in  Italics. 

3.  His  First  Poem. 

The  story  is  told  by  J.  T.  Trowbridge  in  "  The  Youth's 
Companion."  Recitation  closes  with  a  reference  to  the 
poem  "  My  Lost  Youth,"  as  containing  memories  of  his  boy- 
hood days  in  Portland,  his  early  aspirations,  etc. 

4.  Selections  from  "  My  Lost  Youth." 

Omit  stanzas  2,  5,  8,  and  9. 


Longfellow's  birthday.  393 

5.  College  Life. 

Recitation  closes  with  the  titles  of  some  of  the  poems  writ- 
ten before  he  was  nineteen  years  old. 

6.  «  Sunrise  on  the  Hills." 

7.  Longfellow  as  a  Professor. 

Includes  anecdotes. 

8.  IVIarriage. 

Recitation  closes  with  reference  to  the  death  of  Mrs.  Long- 
fellow. 

9.  "  Footsteps  of  Angels." 

10.  His  Home. 

11.  Selection  from  "The  Golden  Milestone." 

Last  four  stanzas. 

12.  His  Second  Marriage. 

References  to  "  Hyperion."     Closes  with  mention  of  Mrs. 
Longfellow's  death. 

13.  "  The  Light  of  Stars." 

14.  His  Children. 

15.  "  The  Children's  Hour." 

16.  Selection  from  "  The  Village  Blacksmith." 

Omit  stanzas  2,  5,  and  6.     The  recitation  is  prefaced  by  a 
short  explanatory  note. 

17.  The  Children's  Arm-Chair. 

History  and  description. 

18.  "  From  My  Arm-Chair." 

19.  Longfellow's  Study. 

The  recitation  closes  with  a  reference  to  various  relics  and 
treasures,  among  them  the  iron  pen. 

20.  "  The  Iron  Pen." 

21.  "  The  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs." 

Omit  stanzas  3,  4,  and  6.      Recitation  prefaced  by  brief 
explanatory  note. 


394  LESSONS  IN   ENGLISH. 

22.  Longfellow's  Friends. 

Mention  of  poems  referring  to  them. 

23.  "  Fiftieth  Birthday  of  Agassiz." 

24.  Origin  of  "  Evangeline." 

25.  Selection  from  "  Evangeline." 

Beginning  with 

"  Then  came  the  laborers  home  from  the  fields  "  — 
extending  to 

"  Firmly  builded  with  rafters  of  oak." 

26.  Selection  from  "  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish." 
Abridgment  of  the  interview  between  John  Alden  and  Priscilla. 

"So  through  the  Plymouth  woods" —     (1  line.) 

"Heard,  as  he  drew  near  the  door" —     (8  lines.) 

"  So  he  entered  the  house  "  —     (5  lines.) 

"  Then  they  sat  down  "  —     (5  lines.) 

"  You  will  say  it  is  wrong  "  —     (18  lines.) 

"  Had  he  but  waited  "  —     (8  lines.) 

"  But  as  he  warmed  "  —     (4  lines.) 

The  recitation  is  prefaced  by  a  reference  to  Longfellow's 
descent  from  John  Alden. 

27.  Longfellow's  Old  Age,  with  explanation  of  "  Morituri  Saluta- 

mus,"  and  short  selections  from  the  poem. 

The  four  opening  lines ;  then  the  lines  beginning, 

"  O  ye  familiar  scenes." 
The  reference  to  Professor  Packard,  beginning, 

"  They  all  are  gone  " ; 

the  closing  lines :  — 

"  Something  remains  for  us  to  do  or  dare ; 
Even  the  oldest  tree  some  fruit  may  bear. 

■fllf  tI?  tJc  tIt  T^  ^  T^ 

For  age  is  opportunity,"  etc. 

These   quotations  may  be   connected  by  a  few  words   of 
explanation. 


Longfellow's  birthday.  395 

28.  "Aftermath." 

Prefaced  by  a  few  words  concerning  Longfellow's  last 
literary  labors. 

29.  Whittier's  poem,  "  The  Poet  and  the  Children." 

Prefaced  by  a  few  words  relating  to  the  celebration  of  Long- 
fellow's seventy-fifth  birthday. 

30.  Death  of  Longfellow. 

Closing  with  a  reference  to  the  influence  of  his  writings. 
This  reference  introduces  a  selection  from  the  poem,  "  Charles 
Sunmer."     Last  five  stanzas. 

31.  The  Funeral  Services. 

Closing  with  mention  of  the  poem  recited  during  the  ser- 
vices, "  Suspiria." 

Reference  may  also  be  made  to  the  fact  that  the  snow 
began  to  fall  while  the  services  were  in  progress  —  thus 
introducing  the  poem  "  Suowflakes." 

32.  The  Memorial  Service. 

Selection  from  "  Hiawatha,"  XV.,  beginning 

"  He  is  dead,  the  sweet  musician  "  — 
to 

"  Then  the  medicine  man." 

33.  Selection  from   Governor   Long's    Tribute  to   Longfellow  — 

beginning  "  Longfellow  was  never  more  present  with  you 
than  here  and  now,"  and  ending  with  "  Excelsior !  " 

A  few  intermediate  sentences  may  be  omitted. 
3L   Presentation  to  the  School  of  a  portrait  of  Longfellow. 


INDEX. 


Abstract,  283  ;  defined,  289  ;  advan- 
tages of,  290 ;  rules  for,  290,  291. 

Adjectives,  implying  number,  136  ; 
comparison  of,  136  ;  faulty  com- 
parisons, 137,  138  ;  used  for  ad- 
verbs, 138. 

admire,  161. 

Adverbs,  used  for  adjectives,  138 ; 
position  in  sentence,  186. 

Affix,  41. 

Agricola,  13. 

aint,  131. 

Alfred  the  Great,  20,  28. 

Allegory,  how  differing  from  simile 
and  metaphor,  69  ;  examples  of, 
72. 

Alliteration,  87. 

Allusion,  87. 

almost,  146. 

among,  149. 

Amplification,  283,  300  ;  advantages 
of,  300  ;  rules  for.  301. 

"  and  ivhich,"  195. 

Angles,  14 ;  Angles  and  Saxons 
hired  by  Yortigern,  15 ;  three 
kingdoms,  20. 

Anglicized  words,  29. 

Anglo-Saxon  conquest,  16 ;  effect 
upon  the  language,  16;  specimens 
of  the  language,  18. 

Anglo-Saxon  element,  importance 
of,  41 ;  prefixes,  43  ;  suffixes,  44. 

another,  124. 

Anti-climax,  82. 

Antithesis,  how  made  forcible,  74. 

anybody,  126. 


Apostrophe,  figure  of,  78;  with  per- 
sonal pronouns,  124;  uses  of  mark, 
250. 

Article,  general  rule,  133;  between 
possessive  case  and  word  which  it 
governs,  134;  before  expressions 
in  same  construction,  134;  before 
words  in  general  sense,  135 ;  before 
present  participle,  135;  referring 
to  class  as  a  whole,  135;  before 
adjectives  qualifying  the  same 
noun,  136. 

Aryan  family,  5. 

as  and  like,  147. 

aught,  ought,  and  naunht,  145. 

Augustine,  18. 

Autobiography,  297. 

Balanced  sentence,  180. 

Barbarism,  150 ;  classes  of,  158. 

Bede,  18. 

beside  and  besides,  148. 

between,  149. 

Bible,  old  translations  of,  7;  purity 
of  English  in,  42. 

Biography,  295;  outline  for,  295;  in- 
troduction to,  296;  conclusion  of, 
297. 
I   Brackets,  rule  for,  249. 

brave,  162. 

bring,  161. 

Britannia,  11. 

Britons,  11. 

Brittany,  16, 17. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen  —  birth, 
home  circle,  boyhood,  380;  school 


398 


INDEX. 


life,  college  life,  381 ;  early  literary 
career,  professional  studies,  382  ; 
editorial  duties,  lectures,  family, 
383 ;  homes,  travels,  birthday 
celebrations,  384;  death,  funeral, 
works,  385;  references,  38(-';  ques- 
tions, 387,  388. 
Buddhists,  6. 

Cadence,  207. 

Caesar,  Julius,  expedition  to  Britain, 
11. 

can  and  may,  142. 

Canute,  21. 

Capitals,  rules  for,  251-253. 

Caret,  250. 

Carnac,  12. 

carriage,  163. 

Celtic  branch,  7;  language,  exter- 
mination of,  17. 

Celts,  11. 

censure,  163. 

Circumlocution,  200. 

Changes  in  meanings  of  words,  161. 

Charlemagne,  22. 

Chester,  origin  of  name,  13. 

Classical  element,  41. 

Clearness,  186. 

Climax,  as  a  figure,  82;  an  element 
of  strength,  202. 

Colloquialisms,  47. 

Colon,  rules  for,  236,  237. 

Comma,  rules  for,  224-230. 

Complex  sentence,  179. 

Composition,  general  directions  for, 
280-282;  two  things  considered, 
283;  from  pictures,  306;  upon  ob- 
jects, 317;  collection  of  material 
for,  317;  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  material,  320;  choice  of 
subjects,  332-334. 

Compound    words,    40;    sentences, 

no. 

Conclusion  of  a  sentence,  202;  of  a 


composition,  292 ;  of  a  biography, 

297. 
Connection,  words  of,  200. 
Contrasts,  201. 
Cuneiform  inscriptions,  6. 
Cymric  tongues,  7. 

damsel,  1G2. 

Danish  invasion,  21;  effect  upon 
language,  21. 

Dash,  rules  for,  243-245. 

Days  of  the  week,  origin  of  names, 
19. 

demerit,  163. 

depart,  163. 

Description,  325;  of  objects,  326;  of 
scenery,  328,  329;  of  persons,  330, 
331 ;  combined  with  narrative,  331. 

Diction,  157;  purity  of,  159;  pro- 
priety of,  161;  precision  of,  167. 

Domesday  book,  24. 

Domesticated  words,  157. 

don't,  130. 

Double  negatives,  139. 

Druids,  12. 

each,  119,  126. 

each  other  and  one  another,  146. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  23. 

either,  119:  either  —  or,  139. 

Emphasis,  191. 

Energy,  199. 

England,  origin  of  name,  16;  Chris- 
tianity in,  19. 

English  language,  our  mother- 
tongue,  6;  place  of  in  Aryan 
family,  7;  words  derived  from 
Roman  names,  14;  of  Latin  ori- 
gin, 14;  different  names  of  the 
language,  17;  words  introduced 
by  missionaries,  20;  effect  of  Da- 
nish invasion  upon  the  language, 
21;  words  introduced  by  the 
Danes,  22;  effect  of  Norman  Con- 


INDEX. 


399 


quest  upon  the  language,  25,  26; 
growth  of  the  language,  27;  influ- 
ence of  cornraeroe,  28;  influence 
of  education,  28,  29;  influence  of 
science,  30;  influence  of  inven- 
tion and  discovery,  30;  influence 
of  new  ideas,  31 ;  number  of  words 
in  the  language,  31;  elements  of 
the  language,  31;  summary  of 
facts  concerning  the  elements  of 
English,  32,  33;  two  main  ele- 
ments, 41;  numerical  ratio  of 
Saxon  and  Classical  words,  41; 
Saxon  element,  42-50;  Classical 
element,  51-65;  words  derived 
from  Latin  roots,  59;  words  de- 
rived from  Greek  roots,  61;  good 
English,  118. 

Epigram,  75. 

Etymology,  the  study  of,  40;  an  un- 
safe guide,  163. 

Euphemism,  85. 

Euphony,  205. 

every,  119, 126. 

everybody ,  126. 

"  Every-day  words,"  26. 

except  for  irithoiit  or  unless,  147. 

Exclamation,  figure  of,  79;  rules  for 
exclamation  point,  241,  242. 

False  syntax,  118. 

Fiction,  323,  324. 

Figures,  defined,  66;  additional,  85- 
88;  faulty,  88-95;  use  of,  88; 
abuse  of,  88;  hackneyed,  89; 
founded  on  too  close  resemblance, 
89;  founded  on  too  remote  resem- 
blance, 90;  inappropriate,  90. 

flee,  fly,  and  floiv,  144. 

France,  origin  of  name,  15. 

Franks,  14. 

Gaelic  tongues,  7. 
German,  7,  14. 


Germans,  fondness  for  native  names, 

30. 
Godwin,  Earl,  23. 
f/ood  and  iccll,  150. 
Gothic  language,  7. 
Goths,  14, 15. 
gossij},  162. 
Greek  branch,  7. 
Greek  words,  character  of,  30;  words 

of  number,  60;  prefixes,  60. 

Harmony,  205. 

Harold,  23. 

Hastings,  battle  of,  23. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel  —  birth,  home 
circle,  early  life,  ;>60;  college  life, 
early  literary  career,  Boston  cus- 
tom house,  3()1 ;  Brook  Farm,  fam- 
ily, Salem  custom  house,  homes, 
362;  consulship,  European  travels, 
return  to  America,  death,  funeral, 
363;  works,  364;  references,  364; 
questions,  365-367. 

Hebrew,  not  the  original  language, 
4;  why  interesting,  8. 

Hengist  and  Horsa,  16. 

Hints  about  letter-writing,  273- 
275. 

Historical  narratives,  322 ;  romance, 
322. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell  —  birth, 
home  circle,  early  home,  school 
life,  368;  college  life,  professional 
studies,  professorships,  medical 
practice,  369;  family,  literary 
career,  visit  to  England,  370; 
works,  370,  371;  references,  371; 
questions,  372,  373. 

Hybrids,  158. 

Hyperbole,  81. 

Hyphen,  use  of,  250. 

idiot,  162. 
imp,  162. 


400 


INDEX. 


impertinent,  163. 

Impropriety,  161. 

improve,  162. 

India,  modern  dialects  of,  6. 

Indian  branch,  6. 

Indians,  extermination  of,  16;  In- 
dian words  left  in  language,  17. 

Indo-European  family,  5;  theories 
concerning  their  home,  10. 

Infinitive,  present  and  perfect,  130. 

Inflection,  9. 

Interrogation,  figure  of,  80;  peculi- 
arities of,  80;  interrogation  point, 
rules  for,  240. 

Introduction  to  a  composition,  292; 
to  a  biography,  295,  296. 

Invention,  307. 

Irony,  84. 

Irving,  Washington  —  birth,  home 
circle,  boyhood,  335;  school  life, 
law  studies,  336;  travels,  337; 
partnership  in  business,  public 
oflices,  home,  338;  literary  career, 
339;  death,  works,  340;  refer- 
ences, 341 ;  questions,  342,  343, 

Italic  branch,  7. 

its,  27. 

Japhetic   family,  5;    theories  con- 
cerning their  home,  10. 
Jutes,  15,  20. 

Kelts  [see  Celts] ,  11. 

Language,  definition  and  derivation 
of  word,  1;  the  study  of,  1;  theo- 
ries concerning  origin  of,  2 ;  earli- 
est forms  of,  3;  the  original  lan- 
guage, 3,  4;  families  of,  5;  dead 
languages,  27. 

Latin,  two  classes  of  words  derived 
from,  29;  prefixes, 51-53;  sufiixes, 
54-56;  words  of  number,  58;  words 
derived  from  Latin  roots,  59. 


Letter,  parts  of,  258-269;  essential 
qualities  of,  269-273. 

Letter-writing,  importance  of,  257; 
hints  concerning,  273-275. 

lie  and  lay,  143. 

like  and  as,  147. 

Linguistics,  1. 

Litotes,  86. 

Local  words,  158. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth  — 
birth,  home  circle,  early  home, 
school  life,  college  life,  344;  pro- 
fessional studies,  professorships, 
345;  family,  home,  346;  literary 
career,  third  voyage  to  Europe, 
Morituri  Salutamxts,  347;  the 
children's  arm-chair,  birthday 
celebration,  death,  348;  works, 
349;  references,  350;  questions, 
351,  352. 

Loose  sentence,  180. 

Lord's  Prayer,  early  versions  of,  18h 

Lowell,  .James  Russell  —  birth,  home 
circle,  home,  school  life,  college 
life,  374;  law  studies,  literary  ca- 
reer, editorial  work,  lectures,  .375; 
professorships,  family,  public  of- 
fices, 376;  works,  376,  377;  refer- 
ences, 377;  questions,  378,  379. 

m.any  a,  119. 

mail  and  can,  142. 

Metaphor,  how  differing  from  simile, 
68;  strained,  92;  based  upon  un- 
familiar objects,  92;  mixed,  93. 

Metonymy,  how  differing  from  met- 
aphor, 76;  kinds  of,  76. 

miser,  163. 

Modifiers,  position  of,  187. 

most  for  almost,  146. 

Narrative,  special  forms  of,  321-323; 

combined  with  description,  331. 
naught,  aught,  and  ought,  145. 


INDEX. 


401 


Negatives,  double,  139. 

neither,  119;  neither— nor,  139. 

nephew,  162. 

New  Forest,  24. 

New  words,  158. 

no,  119. 

nobody,  126. 

Nominative  case,  119;  of  pronouns, 
121. 

Norman-French,  25. 

Normandy,  22. 

Normans,  compared  with  the  Eng- 
lish, 22,  24;  in  England,  24;  rela- 
tions between  Normans  and  Sax- 
ons, 24,  25;  effect  of  Conquest 
upon  the  language,  25,  26. 

Northmen  or  Norsemen,  22. 

Notes,  267,  268. 

Number,  mistakes  in,  120. 

Objective  case,  128. 

Obsolete  words,  158. 

one,  124. 

Onomatopceia.  3,  86,  207. 

onto,  on  to,  and  upon,  149. 

other,  124. 

ou(/ht,  133,  145. 

Outline,  how  differing  from  ab- 
stract, 289,  290;  suggestions  for, 
291,  292,  293,  318. 

painful,  162. 

Pali,  6. 

Parallel,  86. 

Paraphrase.  283;  rules  for,  284,  285; 
advantages  of,  286. 

Parenthesis,  196;  rules  for  marks, 
248,  249. 

Particiijial  construction,  187. 

Participle  and  past  tense.  131. 

Particular  terms,  use  of  in  descrip- 
tion, 326,  327. 

Period,  rules  for,  238,  239. 

Periodic  sentence,  179. 


Persian  branch,  6. 

Personal  narratives,  321. 

Personification,  three  kinds  of,  72, 
73:  peculiar  form  of,  73. 

Picts  and  Scots,  15. 

Pleonasm,  88. 

Possessive  case,  before  a  participle, 
121;  how  formed,  122;  special 
uses,  123;  of  pronouns,  124. 

Prakrit,  6. 

Precision  of  diction,  157,  167, 168. 

Prefix,  40. 

prevent,  163. 

Principal  predicate,  192. 
i    Pronoun,  nominative  case  of  rela- 
tives, 121;  case  after  verb  to  be, 
124;  before  participial  noun,  125 
agreement  with  antecedent,  125 
number  of  relative  pronouns,  126 
use  of  in  sentences,  187. 

Propriety  of  diction,  157;  how  at- 
tained, 161. 

Provincial  words,  158. 

Punctuation  marks,  use  and  value 
of,  222;  general  rules  for,  223; 
most  common  marks,  223. 

Puns,  75. 

pupil,  162. 

Purity  of  diction,  157,  159.  , 

Quotation  marks,  rules  for,  246,  247. 

real  and  reri/,  150. 

reduce,  163. 

Redundancy, 200. 

Relative  clauses,  194. 

Relative  pronouns,  agreement  with 

antecedent,  125,  126;  nominative 

case  of,  127. 
Repetition,  206. 
Reproduction  of  thought,  283. 
Rhetoric,  157. 
Rhythm,  206. 
Roilo,  22. 


402 


INDEX. 


Romaic,  7. 

Romance  languages,  7. 

Romans  in  Britain,  12,  13;  witli- 
drawal  from  the  country,  13;  ef- 
fect of  their  occupation  upon  the 
language  of  Britain,  13. 

Root  of  a  word,  40. 

Sanskrit,  4,  5,  6. 

Saxons,  14;  heptarchy,  so  called,  20; 
three  Saxon  kingdoms,  20. 

Saxon  words,  distinguished  by  their 
form,  42-45 ;  by  use  and  meaning, 
45^7. 

Scandinavian  tongues,  7;  other 
names  applied  to  the  people,  21; 
their  characteristics,  21. 

Sclavonic  branch,  7. 

Semicolon,  rules  for,  232-234. 

Semitic  family,  G;  languages  in- 
cluded, 0;  why  important,  8;  pe- 
culiarities of  iullectiou,  8,  9. 

Sentences,  grammatical  and  rhetoi-i- 
cal  classification  of,  179;  effects  of 
different  kinds,  180;  short  and 
long,  183;  rules  for  construction, 
186;  synopsis  of,  210. 

shall  and  will,  140,  141. 

should  and  vjonld,  141. 

Simile,  66,  67 ;  simile  and  metaphor, 
mistakes  in  use  of,  88-95, 

Singular  subject,  followed  by  ad- 
junct containing  plural  noun,  119. 

sit  and  set,  142. 

Slang,  159. 

Solecism,  118. 

some,  something),  and  somewhat, 
148. 

somebody,  126. 

Sound  adapted  to  sense,  207. 

spoke,  27. 

Squinting  construction,  188. 

station,  161. 

Stonehenge,  12. 


Strabo,  11. 

street,  14. 

Strength,  199. 

Subject,  principal,  191;  change  of, 

194. 
Subjunctive  mood,  132. 
such  and  so,  144. 
Suffix,  40. 

Supplementary  clauses,  196. 
Synecdoche,  77. 
Synonyms,  167,  285. 
Syro-Arabian  family,  6. 
Syntax,  118. 

Tacitus,  14. 

Tautology,  200. 

Technical  terms,  158. 

Tense,  mistakes  in,  131. 

Teutonic  branch,  7. 

Teutons,  character  of  the  people,  14; 

names  of  tribes,  14,  15. 
their,  they're,  and  there,  145. 
to,  too,  and  tioo,  146.. 
to  and  into,  149. 

to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  129. 
too  many  ideas,  195. 

Unity,  194. 
unless,  147. 

uuuecessai-y  words,  199. 
xirhane,  163. 

Vandals,  14. 
Vedas,  6. 

Venerable  Bede,  18. 
very,  150. 
Vikings,  22. 
Vision,  85. 
vivacity,  162. 
Vortigern,  15. 

Wales,  16,  17. 
tcell  and  c/ood,  150. 
Westminster  Abbey,  23. 


-■  I 


INDEX. 


403 


West  Saxons,  prominence  of  their 
language,  17. 

what,  127. 

which,  127. 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf  —  birth, 
home  circle,  early  home,  school 
life,  353;  early  literary  career, 
writings  for  periodicals,  editorial 
duties,  354;  anti-slavery  work, 
homes,  355;  works,  355,  35(5;  refer- 
ences, 357;  questions,  357,  358. 


who,  127. 
ivhom,  127. 

will  and  shall,  140,  141. 
William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  23. 
loithout,  147. 
would  and  should,  141. 
icretch,  162. 

Wycliffe,  translation  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  18. 

Zend-Avesta,  6. 


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Selections,  edited  by  Rev.  Edward  Everett  Hale,  D.D.  Illustrated. 
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Cloth :  60  and  50  cents.    iS'ee  Announcements. 


The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 


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Price,  35  cents;  for  introduction,  30  cents.    Cloth :  55  and  50  cents. 


Sco tt's  Guy  Mannering. 


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Scott's  luanhoe. 

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Scott's  Rob  Roy. 

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6 


ELEMENTARY    ENGLISH. 


Gu/liuer's  Travels. 

By  Dean  Swift,  ix  +  162  pages.  Boards :  Mailing  Price,  35  cents;  foT 
introduction,  30  cents.  Cloth:  Mailing  Price,  45  cents;  for  introduction, 
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Rasse/as,  Prince  of  Abyssinia. 

By  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  with  a  Sketch  of  the  Author.  Tiii  +  155  pages. 
Boards:  Mailing  Price,  35  cents;  for  introduction,  30  cents.  Cloth: 
Mailing  Price,  45  cents;  for  introduction,  40  cents. 

THE  CRITICS  have  uniformly  approved  of  the  design 
and  the  execution  of  this  series. 


Hon.    Robt.   C.    Winthrop:    The 

design  and  the  execution  of  your 
Classics  for  Children  seem  to  me 
alike  excellent. 

E.  A.  Sheldon,  Prin.  of  State  Nor- 
mal School,  Ostcego,  N.Y.:  I  am 
very  much  pleased  with  the  plan  of 
these  books,  and  with  the  happy 
manner  in  which  the  plan  is  exe- 
cuted. I  shall  introduce  them  into 
our  school  work  as  far  as  practical. 
They  meet  a  felt  want  in  our  school. 

Edward  S.  Joynes,  Prof,  of  Eng- 
lish, South  Carolina  College,  Cobim- 
bia  :  If  it  were  possible  to  add  any- 
thing to  the  cordial  and  grateful 
commendation  already  expressed,  I 
.should  be  glad  to  do  so. 

J.  H.  Vincent,  Supt.  of  Instruction, 
Chautauqua  Assembly:   I  desire  to 

Washington  and  His  Countn/. 

Irving's  Life  of  Washingtoo,  abridged  by  Prof.  John  Fiske,  with  an 
Introduction  aud  a  Continuation,  making  the  work  a  complete  classic 
history  of  the  United  States,    viii  +  (118  pages.    Cloth:  Mailing  Price, 
$;1.10;"  for  introduction,  $1.00. 
A  handbook  of  Questions  is  nearly  ready. 


express  my  great  satisfaction  with 
the  taste,  skill,  and  wisdom  of  the 
work.    I  wish  it  abundant  success. 

Mellen  Chamberlain,  Librarian 
Boston  Public  Library :  These  pub- 
lications seem  to  me  to  be  of  great 
value,  whether  regarded  as  home 
reading  or  for  use  in  the  public  school. 

W.  E.  Anderson,  Supt.  of  Schools, 
Milwaukee,  Wis. :  I  most  cheerfully 
testify  to  their  great  merit  and  supe- 
rior adaptability  as  volumes  for  sup- 
plementary reading  or  for  general 
reading. 

F.  Louis  Soldan,  Prin.  of  Normal 
School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. :  The  idea 
underlying  these  books  is  merito- 
rious in  itself,  and  its  execution  ad- 
mirable. 


Hazen's  Complete  Speller. 


Editions  and  Prices. — Part  I.,  Primary:  12mo.  Boards.  54  pages. 
Introduction,  10  cents;  allowed  for  old  book,  3  cents.  Parts  II.  and  III., 
Intermediate  aud  Grammar,  and  Test  Speller:  12mo.  Boards.  148 
pages.  Introduction,  20  cents;  allowed  for  old  book,  6  cents.  Complete 
(Parts  I.,  II.,  and  III.):  12rao.  Boards.  194  pages.  Introduction,  25 
cents;  allowed  for  old  book,  10  cents. 


HIGHER  ENGLISH. 

(See  also  Classics  for  Children,  payes  2  to  6.) 


M info's  Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature. 

Designed  niaiuly  to  show  oharacteristics  of  style.  By  Willl\m  Minto, 
M.A^,  Professor  of  Logic  and  English  Literature  in  the  University  of 
Aberdeen,  Scotland.  i2mo.  Cloth.  566  pages.  Mailing  Price,  Sl.65; 
Introduction,  fl.50. 

rpiIE  main  design  is  to  assist  in  directing  students  in  English 
composition  to  the  merits  and  defects  of  our  principal  writers 
of  prose,  enabling  them,  in  some  degree  at  least,  to  acquire  the  one 
and  avoid  the  other.  Tlie  Introduction  analyzes  style  :  elements 
<)f  style,  qualities  of  style,  kinds  of  composition.  Part  First  gives 
exhaustive  analyses  of  De  Quincey,  Macaulay,  and  Carlyle.  These 
serve  as  a  key  to  all  the  other  authors  treated.  Part  Second  takes 
up  the  prose  authors  in  historical  order,  from  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury up  to  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth. 


H.  C.  De  Motte,  Pres.  of  C'haddock 
College,  Qiiincy,  ML:  We  are  de- 
lighted with  it.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
serviceable  books  I  have  seen  on  the 
subject.  I  shall  recommend  it  for 
our  work  here.     (Sejot.  23,  1886.) 

Hiram  Corson,  Prof,  of  English 


Literature,  Cornell  Univ.,  Ithaca, 
iV.  Y. :  Without  going  outside  of  this 
book,  an  earnest  student  could  get 
a  knowledge  of  English  prose  styles, 
based  on  the  soundest  principles  of 
criticism,  such  as  he  could  not  get  in 
any  twenty  volumes  which  I  know 
of,     {May  14,  1886.) 


Minto's   Characteristics   of  tfie  English   Poets, 

from  Chaucer  to  Shirley. 

By  William  Minto,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Logic  and  English  Literature 
in  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland.  12mo.  Cloth.  xi  + 483  pages. 
Mailing  Price,  $*2.15  ;  for  Introduction,  $2.00. 

nniiE  chief  objects  of  the  author  are :   (1)  To  bring  into  clear 
light  the  characteristics  of  the  several  poets ;  and  (2)  to  trace 
how  far  each  was  influenced  by  his  literary  predecessors  and  his 
contemporaries. 


10  HIGHER   ENGLISH. 

The  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

By  JoHX  F.  Genung,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Rhetoric  ia  Amherst  Collega 
12mo.  Cloth,  xiv  -  483  i)ages.  Mailing  Price,  §1.40;  for  introduction, 
$1.25;  allowance  for  an  old  book  in  exchange  40  cents. 

fT^HE  treatment  is  characterized  by:  — 

1.  Good  Sense.  The  authoi',  while  suitably  magnifying  his 
art,  recognizes  that  expression  is  not  a  substitute  for  ideas,  that 
the  how  of  speecli  is  secondary  to  the  loliat,  that  Rhetoric  is  only 
means  to  an  end,  and  that  its  rules  and  principles  and  devicep 
must  be  employed  with  caution  and  good  sense. 

2.  Simplicity.  Great  care  has  been  taken  to  free  the  treatment 
from  artificialities.  The  subjects  are  most  logically  ordered,  but 
not  too  minutely  subdivided.  So  far  as  possible,  terms  are  used  in 
their  popular  and  usual  sense. 

3.  Originality.  In  a  subject  so  old  and  so  thoroughly  studied 
each  new  treatment  must  take  large  account  of  what  has  been  done 
before.  This  the  author  has  not  failed  to  do.  But  principally  he 
has  made  his  book  from  the  study  of  literature  at  first  hand.  Tra- 
ditional principles  and  rules  have  been  discarded  unless  found  to  5 
rest  on  a  basis  of  truth  and  practical  value.  f 

4.  Availability.  The  treatment  is  throughout  constructive.  The 
student  is  regarded  at  every  step  as  endeavoring  to  make  literature, 
and  is  given  just  what  is  indispensable  to  this  end.    On  every  point 

the  main  problems  of  construction  are  stated  and  solved.     Again,         \ 
the  work  has  been  prepared  not  more  in  the  study  than  in  the  class- 
room, and  the  adaptation  kept  constantly  in  mind  of  every  usage 
and  principle  to  the  actual  needs  of  the  actual  student. 

5.  Completeness.     All  of  the  literary  forms  have  been  given  t 
something  of  the  fulness  hitherto  accorded  only  to  argument  and 
oratory.     This  method  is  clearly  in  line  with  modern  requirements. 
Part  I.  deals  with  style ;  Part  II.  with  invention.      All  questions 
arising  under  both  these  divisions  are  fully  considered. 

6.  Ample  Illustration.  Mere  precept  cannot  help  seeming 
arbitrary.  In  the  concrete  it  bears  a  different,  a  more  intelligible, 
and  a  more  convincing  look.  Accordingly  the  author  has  pre- 
sented no  important  principle  without  illustrations  drawn  from 
actual  usage.  It  is  usage,  too,  of  the  best,  the  most  standard 
writers. 


14  DAY  USE 

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